learning Chapter 7 Basic Learning Concepts - PowerPoint Presentation

Slide1

learning

Chapter 7Slide2

Basic Learning Concepts

What is learning?

Process of acquiring through experience new information or behaviors

How do we learn?

Through association

: Certain events occur together (Classical conditioning); Stimuli that are not control are associated and response is automatic (respondent behavior)

Through consequences

: Association between a response and consequences is learned (Operant conditioning)

Through acquisition of mental information that guides behavior

: Cognitive learningSlide3

Classical Conditioning

Watson

Influenced by Pavlov

Theoretical goal of science of psychology is prediction and control of behavior

Behaviorism

Psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes.

Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).Slide4

Classical Conditioning

Pavlov

Studied digestive system; first Russian Nobel Prize (1904)

Demonstrated associative learning via salivary conditioning

Founder of Classical Conditioning

Pavlov’s study of dog’s digestive systems opened the door to classical conditioning Slide5

Classical Conditioning

Classical conditioning

: Type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events

Neutral stimulus (NS)

: In classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning

Unconditioned response (UR)

: In classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response (such as salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (US) (such as food in the mouth)

Unconditioned stimulus (US)

: in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers an unconditioned response (UR)Slide6

Classical Conditioning

Acquisition

Initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response

Extinction

Diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS)

Spontaneous recovery

Reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned responseSlide7

Classical Conditioning Slide8

Classical Conditioning

Generalization

Tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses

Discrimination

Learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus (which predicts the US) and other irrelevant stimuliSlide9

Classical ConditioningSlide10

Applications of Classical Conditioning

Pavlov’s Legacy

Consensus among psychologists that classical conditioning is basic learning form

Many other responses to many other stimuli can be classically conditioned in many other organisms.

Pavlov demonstrated how a learning process can be studied objectively.

Classical conditioning is a basic form of learning that applies to all species.Slide11

Applications of Classical Conditioning

Pavlov’s principles are used to influence human health and well-being

Areas of consciousness, motivation, emotion, health, psychological disorders, therapy

Addicts counseled to avoid stimuli that may trigger cravings

Pairing particular taste with drug that influences immune responses may eventually lead to response from taste alone.Slide12

Applications of Classical Conditioning

Pavlov’s work also provided a basis for Watson’s ideas that human emotions and behaviors, though biologically influenced, are mainly conditioned responses.

Watson applied classical conditioning principles in his studies of “Little Albert” to demonstrate how specific fears might be conditioned.

Used in advertising

When you hear “$5

footlong

” you automatically think of what food chain?Slide13

Operant Conditioning

Behavior operates on the environment to produce rewarding or punishing stimuli.

Organisms associate their own actions with consequences.

Actions followed by reinforcement increase; those followed by punishments often decrease.Slide14

Operant Conditioning

Skinner

Expanded on Thorndike’s law of effect

Developed behavioral technology and principles of behavior control

Designed and used the Skinner box for experiments and recorded responses

A Skinner box

Inside the box, the rat presses a bar for a food reward. Outside, a measuring device (not shown above) records the animal’s accumulated responses.Slide15

Operant Conditioning Slide16

Operant Conditioning

Everyday behaviors are continually reinforced and shaped.

Reinforcement

: Any event that strengthens a preceding

response

Shaping

: Gradually guiding toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behaviorSlide17

Operant Conditioning

Primary

: Is unlearned; innately reinforcing stimuli

Conditioned (secondary)

: Gains power through association with primary

reinforcer

Immediate

: Occurs immediately after a behavior

Delayed: Involves time delay between desired response of and delivery of rewardSlide18

Operant Conditioning

Reinforcement schedule

Includes pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced

Continuous reinforcement schedule

Involves reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs

Partial (intermittent) reinforcement

Includes schedule reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcementSlide19

Operant Conditioning

Fixed- ratio schedule:

In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses.

Variable-ratio

: Schedule in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses.

Fixed-interval schedule

: In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed.

Variable-interval schedule

: In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals.Slide20

Operant Conditioning

Fixed

Variable

Ratio

Every so many:

reinforcement after every nth behavior, such as buy 10 coffees, get 1 free, or pay workers per product unit produced

After an unpredictable number:

reinforcement after a random number of behaviors, as when playing slot machines or fly fishing

Interval

Every so often:

reinforcement for behavior after a fixed time, such as Tuesday discount prices

Unpredictably often:

reinforcement for behavior after a random amount of time, as when checking for a Facebook response Slide21

Operant Conditioning

Punishmen

t administers an undesirable consequence or withdraws something desirable in an attempt to decrease the frequency of a behavior (a child’s disobedience).

Positive punishment

Presenting a negative consequence after an undesired behavior is exhibited, making the behavior less likely to happen in the future

Negative punishment

Removing a desired stimulus after particular undesired behavior is exhibited, resulting in reducing behavior in futureSlide22

Applications of Operant Conditioning

At school

: Computer and adaptive learning software used in teaching and learning

In sports:

Behavioral methods implemented in shaping behavior in athletic performance

At work

: Rewards successfully used to increase productivity

At home

: Basic rules of shaping used in parentingSlide23

Classical Conditioning

Operant Conditioning

Basic idea

Organism associates events.

Organism associates behavior and resulting events.

Response

Involuntary, automatic.

Voluntary, operates on environment.

Acquisition

Associating events; NS is paired with US and becomes CS.

Associating response with a consequence (

reinforcer

or punisher).

Extinction

CR decreases when CS is repeatedly presented alone.

Responding decreases when reinforcement stops.

Spontaneous recovery

The reappearance, after a rest period, of an extinguished CR.

The reappearance, after a rest period, of an extinguished response.

Generalization

The tendency to respond to stimuli similar to the CS.

Organism’s response to similar stimuli is also reinforced.

Discrimination

The learned ability to distinguish between a CS and other stimuli that do not signal a US.

Organism learns that certain responses, but not others, will be reinforced.Slide24

Biological Constraints on Conditioning

Limits on classical conditioning

Garcia and

Koelling’s

taste-aversion research

Animals and humans seem biologically prepared to learn some associations rather than others

Conditioning is stronger when the CS is ecologically relevant

Genetic predisposition to associate CS with a US that follows predictably and immediately is adaptiveSlide25

Biological Constraints on Conditioning

Limits on operant conditioning

Nature limits species’ capacity for operant conditioning

Biological constraints predispose organisms to learn associations that are naturally adaptive

Instinctive drift occurs as animals revert to biologically predisposed patterns Slide26

Cognition Processes and Classical Conditioning

Mental information that guides behavior is acquired through cognitive learning.

Animal learning of predictability of event (

Rescorla

and Wagner, 1972)

British children conditioning of ice-cream associated characters (Field, 2006)

Adult gut-level liking for characters associated with positive stimuli (Olson and Fazio, 2001)

Stronger likes and dislikes when notice and awareness of associations learned (Shanks, 2010)Slide27

Cognition Processes and Operant Conditioning

Skinner

Discounted importance of cognition

Evidence of cognitive processes

Animal response on fixed-interval reinforcement schedule

Development of cognitive map in rats (latent learning)

Destruction of intrinsic motivation by excessive rewardsSlide28

Learning by Observation

Observational learning

Higher animals learn without direct experience by watching and imitating others

Bandura

Pioneer researcher of observational learning

Modeling

Bobo doll experiment

Vicarious reinforcement and vicarious punishmentSlide29

Learning by Observation

Mirror neurons

Include frontal lobe neurons that some scientists believe fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so

Brain’s mirroring of another’s action

May enable imitation and empathySlide30

Applications of Observational Learning

Prosocial effects

Behavior modeling enhances learning of communication, sales, and customer service skills in new employees

Modeling nonviolent behavior prompts similar behavior in others

Across seven countries, viewing prosocial media increased later helping behavior

Socially responsive toddlers tend to have strong internalized conscience as preschoolersSlide31

Applications of Observational Learning

Antisocial effects

Abusive parents may have aggressive children

Watching TV and videos may teach children

Bullying is effective tool for controlling others

Free and easy sex has little later consequences

Men should be tough; women should be gentle

Violence-viewing effect