IS Research Development - PowerPoint Presentation

Slide1

IS Research Development an International Perspective

Nicholas C. Romano, Jr

.

SDA Bocconi

Information Systems Division

Università Commerciale Luigi BocconiNicholas.Romano@SDABocconi.itSpears School of BusinessManagement Science and Information SystemsOklahoma State University – TulsaNicholas.Romano@OKState.edu

Università degli Studi di Verona

Facoltà di EconomiaSlide2

Talk OutlinePersonal IntroductionBusiness and IS Research

Research Defined and Ways of KnowingScientific Method and TheoryResearch Process

Research Paradigms

Theory ConstructionIS Research MethodsSlide3

1. Personal IntroductionNicholas C. Romano, Jr., Ph.D.Associate Professor, MSIS Spears School OSU

Ph.D. from University of Arizona in MIS (1998)Family Man, Husband and Father

Wife Rosalina, 2 Daughters Isabella (8) Gabriela

(6) 1 Son Nico (3)Dog Osa AIS Council Member (Americas Representative – 2007-2009)Very Active in AIS and the AMCIS and HICSS Conferences20 years’ work experience, much of it in group support for teamwork and projectsFormer IBMer

(Dad, Brother, Sister, Brother in law, Great Uncle, Second cousin, others I am sure)Occasional, but Terrible Golfer ( FORE!!!) – want to do it more..

Isabella

8

Gabriela

6

Nico

3

Management Information Systems

3Slide4

What is Business Research?the

“systematic

and objective

process of gathering, recording and analyzing data for aid in making business decisions” (Zikmund, Business Research Methods, 2002, p. 6)

Systematic

and Objective Distinguish Business ResearchImportant tool for managers and decision-makers in corporate and non-corporate organizationsSlide5

When is Business Research Used?

Business research methods

used in situations of uncertainty, when decision-makers face two or more courses of action and seek to select the

best possible alternative under the

circumstances Aims to improve the quality of decision-making which, in turn, benefits the organization and helps ensure its continuity and efficiencySlide6

Typical Users of Business Research MethodsBusinesses and Corporations

Public-Sector AgenciesConsulting Firms

Research Institutes

Non-Governmental OrganizationsNon-Profit OrganizationsIndependent Researchers and ConsultantsSlide7

General Business Conditions and

Corporate Research

Short- & Long-Range Forecasting,

Business and Industry TrendsGlobal Environments Inflation and Pricing Plant and Warehouse Location Acquisitions

Financial and Accounting Research

Forecasts of financial interest rate trends, Stock,bond and commodity value predictions capital formation alternativesmergers and acquisitions risk-return trade-offs portfolio analysis impact of taxes research on financial institutions expected rate of return capital asset pricing models credit risk cost analysisFields Where Business Research is Often Used – (1)Management and OrganizationalBehaviour ResearchTotal Quality ManagementMorale and Job Satisfaction

Leadership Style

Employee ProductivityOrganizational EffectivenessStructural ssues

Absenteeism and turnover

Organizational ClimateSlide8

Information Systems Research

Knowledge and information needs assessment

Computer information system use and evaluation

Technical suppot satisfactionDatabase analysisData miningEnterprise resource planning systems

Customer relationship management systems

Corporate Responsibility ResearchEcological ImpactLegal Constraints on advertising and promotionSex, age and racial discrimination / worker equitySocial values and ethicsSales and Marketing ResearchMarket PotentialsMarket ShareMarket segmentationMarket characteristicsSales AnalysisEstablishment of sales quotasDistribution channelsNew product conceptsTest marketsAdvertising researchBuyer behaviourCustomer satisfactionWebsite visitation rates

Fields Where Business Research is Often Used – (2)Slide9

The Value of Business Research for Managers – (1)Uncertainty

Reduction and improved decision-making quality

with

several consequent advantages (e.g. strategic, operational) and benefits for FirmsBusiness Research Methods can be employed in

4 stages:

Identification of problems and/or opportunitiesUseful for strategy planning, analysis of internal and external organizational environmentSlide10

The Value of Business Research for Managers – (2) (2)

Diagnosis

and

Assessment of problems and/or opportunities Gain insight into underlying reasons and causes for the situation. If there is a problem, it asks what happened and why? If there is an opportunity, it seeks to explore, clarify and refine the nature of the opportunity and, in the case of multiple opportunities, seeks to set priorities

(3)

Selection and Implementation of Courses of Action After alternative courses of action have been determined, selection of the best possible course. Slide11

The Value of Business Research for Managers – (3) An important consideration is the quality of forecasting which is an essential tool of research

(4)

Evaluation of Courses

of Action Business Research Methods are used after a course of action has been implemented in order to determine whether activities have been properly implemented and have accomplished what they intended to do Slide12

The Value of Business Research for Managers – (4)Evaluation

Research

Formal

objective measurement and evaluation of the extent which an activity, project or program has achieved its goal, and the factors which influence performance (e.g. audits). Formal

objective measurement and evaluation of the extent to which on-going activities, projects or programs

are meeting their goals (performance-monitoring research)Slide13

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

NO

NO NO NOWhen Should Business Research be Undertaken?Is sufficient timeavailable?Is information inadequate?

High importance

of decision?

Research benefits

greater than costs?

Do Undertake

Business

Research

Do not

undertake

Business

ResearchSlide14

Value and Costs of Undertaking Business Research

Decreased Uncertainty

Higher Likelihood of Correct Decisions

Better Business performance

Higher Profits

Better ReputationResearch CostsDelay in Making Business Decisions

Disclosure of Information to RivalsPossibility of Error

VALUE

COSTSSlide15

Research Building Blocks

Measurements of phenomena

(e.g. sales statistics of a department store)

DATA

Determination of relationship amongst data with a

view to facilitating understanding of the phenomena, their relationships and decision-making(e.g. past and predicted future sales trends) INFORMATIONKNOWLEDGEBlend of information, experience and in-sights that provides a framework that can be thoughtfully evaluated

when assessing new information or evaluating

relevant situations

WISDOM

Blend of

Knowledge information

, experience and in-sights that

provides a framework that can be thoughtfully evaluated

when assessing new information or evaluating

relevant situationsSlide16

Research IntroductionDefinitionWays of Knowing

The Scientific MethodSlide17

Origin of the Word “Research”

From French word “

recherche

”to

travel through or survey. Slide18

What is Research? “If research is to make the contribution to practice that is now possible, we must start with an adequate concept of the

nature of research.”

“Research is an

unusually stubborn and persisting effort to think straight which involves the gathering and the intelligent use of relevant data”

Hamlin, H. M. (1966) What is Research?

American Vocational Journal, September 14-16. See: http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/agexed/aee578/hamlin.html Slide19

Pendulum of Scholarship in Business Management Schools

Professional

Learning

CommunityManagement

Consulting

Disciplinary Science

Social System

of Practice

-Practitioners

-Managers

-Businesses

-Trade Associations

-Management Societies

Social System

of Science

-Scientists

-Graduate Schools

-Research Institutes

-Scholarly Societies

Adapted From Van

de

Ven

, Engaged

ScholarshipSlide20

Elements of Research Not Frequently DiscussedResearch is

not a linear process

It is just written up like it is. One study leads to others

Research is a social processNot because research is social but because results must enter into a social “learned” society (be read and cited)Research

value (impact) more a question of importance than volume

But volume is a wonderful, simple measure of productivityBut, one good published idea is worth more than 100 articlesHow do you know value? CITES!!!Citation Tools [isi web of science; Google Scholar, Citeseer, SSRN, Libra, Publish or Perish]Slide21

Little Discussed Elements (II)Research is for posterityi.e., it has a different time scale than consulting

Refereed archival journals versus the InternetResearch builds

upon the past…by tearing it down (

theory building), or by supporting it (replication studies; theory extension)Research not published is virtually worthlessThe importance is more to be read than to read!Research demands

special form of writing and languageSlide22

Some Myths About ResearchPurpose of research is to “

Prove” or “Confirm” a theory

Research findings are presented as “

Complete” and “Conclusive” answersResearch Scientists come to “Consensus” or “Agreements”

on how things work (i.e. Global Warming; Pluto a planet)There is a hierarchy of research methodologies that places true “

experimental” research at the top.NONE OF THESE ARE TRUE!Slide23

Key TermsPhilosophy

Epistemology

The Love of Knowledge

Distinguishing True (Real

) Knowledge

fromFalse (Pseudo) KnowledgeSlide24

Different Ways of “Knowing”AuthorityBecause someone you respected told you so

TenacityBecause it has withstood the

test of timeSerendipity

discovery by accidentLogic / ReasonBecause you figured it out with your mindScience (Research)We’ll get to that shortly…Slide25

Authority

How do we know

that the Earth is flat?

Right, but how do I know?But how do you know?

Because Claudius

Ptolemy said so.Because The Pope said so. (Pope Paul V)Because I’m in charge and I amputting you (Galileo)in prison! Slide26

Galileo Galilei (15641642)

First to use telescope

to study sky

Discovered Solar spots and Jupiter’s satellites (Galilean moons)Believed Earth moves around SunIn 1632 he was convicted of heresy

.In 1992 it was officially stated by the Pope that Galileo was right

.(360 years later)Authority is SLOW to changeSlide27

TenacityGrandpa, how do I know that I should drink 8 cups of water per day?

But how did he know?But how did

he know?

But how did THEY KNOW?!Because that’s what my father did.Because that’s what his father did.

Because that’s what his father did!

Well you’re alive, aren’t you?Slide28

SerendipityColumbus is the archetype ofsurprising

discoveries In 1492 Columbus sailed the

ocean blue In quest of a passage through

The Indies and the orient too He discovered America,Serendipitous through andthrough.Slide29

SerendipityIsaac Newton's famed

apple falling from a tree, led to his musings about the nature of gravitation

.

“In the year 1666 he retired again from Cambridge to his mother in Lincolnshire. Whilst he was pensively meandering in a garden it came into his thought that the power of gravity (which brought an apple from a tree to the ground) was not limited to a certain distance from earth, but that this power must extend much further than was usually thought. Why not as high as the Moon said he to himself & if so, that must influence her motion & perhaps retain her in her orbit, whereupon he fell a calculating what would be the effect of that supposition.“John

Conduitt, Newton's assistant at the royal mint Slide30

Serendipity

The Post-it note was invented in 1968

by Dr Spencer Silver

, a 3M scientist who stumbled upon a glue (Acrylate-copolymer microspheres [adhesive formula] ) that was not sticky enough. In 1968, Silver developed a high-quality but "low-tack" adhesive, made of tiny, indestructible acrylic spheres that would stick only where they were tangent to a given surface, rather than flat up against it. As a result, the adhesive's grip was strong enough to hold papers together, but weak enough to allow the papers to be pulled apart again without being torn. More importantly, the adhesive could be used again and again.

Silver wanted to market the adhesive as a spray, or as a surface for bulletin boards on which temporary notices could be easily posted and then removed. Over the next five years, Silver tried to interest his colleagues at 3M, informally and in presentations. A marketable form of the product proved elusive however, until Arthur Fry attended one of Silver's seminars.

Fry sang in his church choir. He was frustrated the paper bookmarks he used to mark the songs in his hymnal would not stay put. In a moment of insight, Fry realized that Silver's reusable adhesive would provide precisely what he needed.Fry wrote up his idea for a reusable bookmark and presented it to his supervisors. Initially, management was skeptical, but the staff could not get enough of the samples Fry was passing around. Soon, 3M gave the invention its full support. It took another five years to perfect and design machines to manufacture the product, but in 1980, Post-it® Notes were introduced nationwide. Within two years, the product became a necessity in the office, schools, labs, libraries, and even in homes.Slide31

Logic and ReasoningUnderstanding phenomena by analyzing with

our minds what we observe with our senses.

Syllogism

A logical argument consisting of two premises and a conclusion.Example: Persons who smoke cigarettes have a high rate of lung cancer. Persons who do not smoke cigarettes have a low rate of lung cancer. Therefore, smoking cigarettes causes lung cancer.Slide32

Persons who smoke cigarettes have a high rate of lung cancer and yellow teeth.

Persons who do not smoke cigarettes have a low rate of lung cancer and yellow teeth.

Therefore, smoking cigarettes causes lung cancer and yellow teeth.

SyllogismSlide33

Well that sounds pretty good, I’ll just use logic and reasoning for my research!Problems with limiting our knowledge

to what we can discover with logic and reason:Subjectivity (Bias

)We do not observe “

the whole picture”We have no external “check” on our logical thought processesExample: I observe that all stars follow a regular pattern of motion in the sky in relation to the Earth. Therefore the Earth is stationary and at the center of the universe.Slide34

Why not just rely on pure observation?What one observes: May not be Quantifiable

May Change over timeMay not be Reality

Can be based on Misinformation or BiasSlide35

Why not just rely on pure observation?Count the Black Dots….How many do you see?Slide36

Why not just rely on pure observation?

Are the Horizontal lines parallel or do they slope?Slide37

Actual building in Melbourne, Australia Slide38

How many legs does this elephant have?

Why not just rely on pure observation?Slide39

Are the two boys the same or different?

Why not just rely on pure observation?Slide40

Count the menWhy not just rely on pure observation?

Count the men Again

Count the men one last timeSlide41

Is the wine glass on or off the tray?Is the water glass standing or laying downSlide42

Are the three purple Shapes Squares?

Are their sides parallel?

Are they moving or still?Slide43

The Ames RoomPeople seem to change size as they move around Slide44

How the Ames Room worksSlide45

Nicholas C. Romano, Jr.Oklahoma State UniversityDoctoral Seminar – MSIS 6333

Wednesday August 21st, 2009

Actual Position of Person A

Apparent

Position of Person A

Actual and ApparentPosition of Person AApparentRoom shapeViewing HoleHow the Ames Room worksSlide46

Why not just rely on pure observation?Subjectivity (Bias)“group A is nicer than group B”Recall (

forgetfulness – selective memory)What did you say to me last week about topic X?

Interpretations or conclusions that

lack convincing support“most kids don’t care what their parents say”Slide47

Even reason, when applied with bias,leads

to irrationality and incorrect conclusions.Slide48

Logical FallaciesFallacies occur when we reach wrong conclusions based on real observations or facts.

Examples:Cum hoc ergo propter hoc (with this, therefore because of this) – Attributing causality based on correlation

Converse accident – Generalizing

to a group based on an individual (or a small set of individuals)Accident – Specifying to an individual based on a groupPost hoc ergo propter hoc (after this, therefore because of this) – Attributing causality based on temporalitySee a list of 40 Fallacies at: http://abyss.uoregon.edu/~js/glossary/fallacies.htmlSlide49

We all know that Penguins cannot fly.

Logic, one more thing that

Penguins are not good at.

Penguins are Blank and White.

Old TV shows are Blank and White.

Therefore some Penguins are Old TV Shows.Slide50

So I should just accept that ignorance is bliss and that I don’t know anything?Maybe if you want to sit on your porch all day doing nothing, but …….

Authority isn’t Always InaccurateWe need to rely on knowledge our parents, teachers, government tells us

Tradition is

ImportantWe all need a starting point and rootsLogic and Reason are Powerful ToolsOur brains are like supercomputersWe couldn’t survive without ThinkingEach way of knowing can only lead us so far

We need a method to correct for weaknesses of other approachesSlide51

Scientific Method(or methods)Slide52

How one discoversKnowledge

Extent to whichknowledge

changesthrough time

Extent to whichFuture changes inKnowledge areexpected by user

From ancient texts orrevelations of inspired

individuals.Little.None.Unchangeable except byreinterpretation byauthorities, or by newinspired revelations, or bydivergence of mavericks.Outrageousstereotype of userBible-thumpingfundamentalistor robe-draped monk; fondof Sunday-morning radio.Crystal-hugging wearerOf tie-dyed T-shirts;listens to new-agemusic.From personal insight,Or insight of others

May be considerable.

Can be expected, to thedegree that the userExpects personalDevelopment

As user changes

or as

User

encounters ideas

of others

Geek with pocket protector

And calculator; watches

Discovery Channel

often.

Considerable

.

Considerable

.

By

new observations

or

experiment

s, and/or by

reinterpretation

of existing data.

From evidence generated byobservation of nature or byexperimentation.

Science and other kinds of knowledge

How

knowledge

changes

through

time

Religious Knowledge

Artistic/Mystic Knowledge

Scientific KnowledgeSlide53

Science and other kinds of knowledge

(continued)

Religious Knowledge

Artistic/Mystic Knowledge

Scientific Knowledge

Certainty

of the user

High

, given sufficient

faith

;

Can be

complete

.

High

Dependent on

quality and

Extent of evidence

; should

never be complete

.

Assumptions

Ancient texts or Inspired revelation have

meaning to modern or

future conditions

.

personal feelings

And insights

reflect

nature

.

Nature has

discernible,

predictable, and explainable

patterns

of behavior.

Where users put

Their

Faith

In the

supernatural beings

That they worship or in the

authorities

who interpret

Texts and events.

In their

own

perceptions

.

In the

honesty of people

reporting scientific data (the

incomes of whom depend

on generation of that data),

and in the

human ability to

Understand nature

.

Sources of

Contradiction

Between different

religions

;

between

different texts

and/or

authorities

within

one religion

; within

individual texts

(as in the

two accounts of human

origin in the Judeo

Christian Genesis).

Between users

, who

Each draw on their own

Personal Insights

Across time

, as

understanding changes;

between fields

, which

use different approaches

and materials; and

between

individuals

, who use

different approaches and

materials.Slide54

Religion and ScienceScience is based on

skepticism and experimentReligion is based on

faith

HoweverMany scientists are religious Also many leaders of religion have been great scientists

(Mendel – father of experimental Genetics - Monk)

Science and Religion are simply different parts of our livesScience cannot disprove the idea of GodReligion cannot prove that Science is wrongSlide55

Scientific Inquiry as a way of KnowingScience is a disciplined, systematic way to understand the nature of the universe

.Science uses empirical data

to test falsifiable theories via a

deductive method.WHAT THE HECK DOES THAT MEAN???Slide56

Science = order, explanation, rational methods, logic The main purpose of science is to trace, within the chaos and flux of phenomena, a

consistent structure with order and meaning. This is called the philosophy of

rationalism,

rational as in conforming with reason. And the purpose of scientific understanding is to coordinate our experiences and bring them into a logical system. Slide57

Science is also a Dialogue between Humankind and Nature. Science is far from a perfect

instrument of knowledge, but it provides something that other philosophies fail to, concrete results.

Science is a “candle in the dark'' to

illuminate irrational beliefs or superstitionsSlide58

Six General Goals of Science

Organize & categorize things (typologies and ontologies)

Explain

Past EventsPredict Future EventsControl Future EventsProvide a Sense of UnderstandingGeneralize Results

Adapted from: Reynolds, P. D. (1971).

A primer in theoryconstruction. Indianapolis, The Bobbs-Merrill Company.Slide59

More Specific Goals of ScienceCreate Causal Models for

phenomena of interest (Theory)Test the usefulness of our models

(Experiments and other methods)

Use those models to increase the likelihood people will survive and thrive. (Applications) Slide60

Science – a DefinitionScience, ... organized systematic enterprise that gathers knowledge about the world and condenses the knowledge into testable laws and principles

. Diagnostic features of

science that distinguish it from pseudoscience

are: 1. Repeatability: The same phenomenon is sought again, preferably by Independent investigation, and the interpretation given to it is confirmed or discarded by means of novel analysis and experimentation. 2. Economy: Scientists attempt to abstract the information into the form that is both simplest and aesthetically most pleasing the combination Called

Elegance while yielding the largest amount of information with the least amount of effort.

3. Mensuration: If some thing can be properly measured, using Universally accepted scales, generalizations about it are rendered unambiguous. 4. Heuristics: The best science stimulates further discovery, often in unpredictable New directions; and the new knowledge provides an additional test of the original principles that led to its discovery. 5. Consilience: The explanations of different phenomena most likely to survive are those that can be connected and proved consistent with one another. Edward O. Wilson (1998) American Scientist, 86(1) Jan/Feb P.6.Slide61

The Research P

rocess

Pick a research

topic.Formulate an appropriate research question

related to that topic.

How do you do this?Pick an outcome you think is interesting and ask, “What do think caused that outcome? and Why?”Slide62

The Research P

rocess

3.

Refine the research question by hypothesizing relationship(s) between the variablesSlide63

The Research P

rocess

4.

Operationalize the variablesThe conversion of abstract concept into concrete terms.

Measurement -- how do we know anything happened?Slide64

The Research P

rocess

5.

Select an appropriate research technique

Examples:

1. Experiments2. Quasi-experiments3. Surveys4. Interviews5. Unobtrusive Data Collection6. Content AnalysisCase StudiesAction ResearchDesign ScienceSimulationSlide65

The Research P

rocess

6.

Collect data – Measure attributes of the real world. Classifying things that actually happen in the world with your operational scheme and then recording that data.

Things

to consider:1. Quantitative vs. Qualitative2. Primary vs. Secondary3. Sample vs. PopulationSelection of CasesValiditySlide66

The Research P

rocess

7.

Analyze Data

Look for systematic

differencesSTATISTICAL ANALYSISCONTENT ANALYSISHERMENUETICSSlide67

The Research P

rocess

8.

Interpretation of the resultsWhat did you find?

How do your findings relate to other findings?

What are the theoretical implications, how will this impact other IS research?What are the Practical implications, how will this impact IS practice?Slide68

Definition of the Scope of Lit. Rev.

Review of Selected Literature

Identification of initial findings- “Gap”

Gap Definition

Initial Research Objective

Taking the gap further ..Development of:

The Value Matrix

The 3rd.

Dimensio

n

VM

Hard & Soft Value

Footprints

Gap Asses. Tool

Research Questions

Value Matrix Value cube Footprints

Identification of:

Contributions

to Knowledge and Theory

Contributions to Practice

Limitations of Framework/ Footprint

Validation of Frameworks

Answer to RQ

Review of:

Scientific Paradigm

Research strategies

Techniques among others

Understanding of research methods

Definition of Phenomenological Research Approach

Controls

Criteria to evaluate results and the whole research

Research tools

8 Case Studies

Counting M.

Feedback : consultants

&conferences

Application of R. Methods

Evolution of Frameworks

Acceptability of Frameworks

Development of:

Workshop

Exploratory Research

Initial Literature Review “

Value Creation”

RESEARCH

OUT COMES

Why study Value? Answer

Weaknesses of current solutions Unsolved issues

PHASE

Pre-understanding

Study of Research Methods

Theory Building

Theory Testing

Evaluation of the research

Point of Departure

Slide69

“Thus, the task is not so much to see what no one has yet seen, but to think what no one has yet thought about that which

everybody sees.”Arthur Schopenhauer

Slide70

 Science tests all hypotheses, but some scientists

summarily dismiss opposing views:

 Science has proven itself to be an infallible tool for unlocking certain areas of knowledge, but it's not logical to conclude from this that all thinking by scientists is infallible.

Science can be used to discover many things, yet some scientists wrongly presume that all things can be discovered through it.                                      Slide71

What is Science?Science =

A set of

facts

and the theories

that

explain the facts.Whatever’s being done by institutions carrying on “scientific” activity.A particular approach, the scientific methodSlide72

DataData are concrete facts, records or collections of information we gather about phenomena of interest.Usually

expressed in numerical termsData may express facts of individuals (blood pressure, disease status, response to survey questions) or geopolitical areas (crime rate, death rate, per capita income)Slide73

EmpiricismAn empirical (observational) approach to research

is one that strives to be objective.

It expresses concepts in concrete, tangible

ways.Not fuzzy or abstract ways…Empiricism tests relationships between these concepts.Empiricism is closely tied to the type of data that you use.Slide74

Limitations of Empirical DataOur research cannot attempt to make value judgmentsCannot answer questions such as, “What is morally right?” or “Which drug is better?”

Can analyze people’s opinions about such thingsSome concepts are difficult to measure with numbersIf we wanted to know if “

happier people” lived longer,

how could we measure happiness?Sometimes we just can’t get the data Slide75

Popular FictionsThe goal of science is to accumulate factsScience distorts reality and can’t do justice to the fullness of human experience.Scientific knowledge is truth.Science is concerned primarily with solving practical and social problems.Slide76

“Science is neither a philosophy

nor

a belief system

. It is a combination of mental operations that has become increasingly the habit of educated peoples, a

culture of illuminations hit upon by

a fortunate turn of history that yielded the most effective way of learning about the real world ever conceived.”Edward O. WilsonConsilience: The Unity of KnowledgeSo then, what is Science?Slide77

The Heart of the MatterWhy do we see what we do and not

see something else?

Paradigm, Ontology,

Epistemology, AxiologySlide78

ParadigmSlide79

Some Fundamental ParadigmsPositivist ResearchInterpretivist ResearchCriticalist Research

Design ResearchAction ResearchSlide80

Research TaxonomiesIt is important to understand where you fit

in regards to researchSlide81

Ontology

Epistemology

Methodology

Methods

Sources

What’s outthere to know?What and how can we know about it?How can we go about acquiring that knowledge?Which preciseprocedures canwe use to acquireit?Which data can

we collect?

The interrelationship between the building blocks of research (Grix 2004: 66)Slide82

Study of how we evaluate our investigations.

Strategy

or

plan of action

; Research

Design – shapes our choice of methods and links that choice to the research outcomes.Study of values: what values does an individual or group hold and why?

Study that explores the

nature of knowledge: for example, on what does knowledge depend and how can we be certain of what we know?

Study that describes the

nature of reality

:

for example, what is real and what is not,

what is fundamental and what is derivative?

Philosophical Assumptions

Ont

ology

Basic Belief

Epistem

ology

Method

ology

Axi

ology

Research Perspectives

Positivist

Interpretivist

Design

Single

Reality;

Knowable

,

Probabilistic

Multiple

Realities;

Socially Constructed

Multiple

Contextually Situated alternative

World States

;

Socio-technologically

enabled

Objective

; Dispassionate. Detached observer of truth

Subjective

, i.e. values and knowledge emerge from the researcher-participant interaction

Knowing through making

: Objectively constrained

construction within a context

. Iterative circumscription reveals meaning

Observational

; Quantitative; Statistical

Participative

; Qualitative; Hermeneutical; Dialectical.

Developmental

; Measure artifactual impacts one the composite system

Truth

: Universal and Beautiful; Predictive.

Understanding

: Situated and Descriptive

Control; Creation; Progress

(i.e. improvement) Understanding

Criteri

ology

Internal

validity

; construct validity; external validity and

reliability

.

Credibility:

triangulation

multiple

data sources

Confirmability

Expected

Functionality

and

performance

Useful

and

easy to use

Solves Problem at handSlide83

Behavioral vs. Design Science (Hevner, et al. 2004)

Behavioural Science Research (BSR) Design Science Research (DSR)

Origin

Natural

Science Engineering, Sciences of the Artificial Paradigm

Problem understanding

paradigm

P

roblem

solving

paradigm

O

bjective

develop and justify theories which explain or

predict

organizational human phenomena

surrounding

the analysis, design,

implementation

, management, and use of information

Systems

create innovations that define ideas,

practices

, technical capabilities, and product

through

the analysis, design,

implementation

, management, and use of information

systems

Object

human-computer-interaction

IT

artefact

designSlide84

IS Research Cycle

Behavioral

Science

Research

Design

Science ResearchUnderstanding,TruthDesign,IS ArtifactsUtility,Usage in PracticeTheory Building,Hypotheses

Build

Evaluate/

Apply

Theorize

JustifySlide85

Reassembling the DimensionsA given research project is a point in multidimensional space.Some regions of this space are popular:

These often go together as

Q

uan

titative research.

These often go together as Qualitative research.

Observational

Interventionist

Biophysical

Psychosocial

Sample

Case(s)

Quantitative

Qualitative

Objective

Subjective

Neutral

Partisan

topic

scope

method

mode

ideology

politics

This pigeonholing doesn’t apply to the novelty,

technology

and utility dimensions

.

Before

After

TheorySlide86

Diagnosing your research paradigmH&H p.73 (A if you agree/D if you disagree)

Quantitative data is more scientific than qualitative dataIt is important to state the hypotheses before data collection

Surveys are probably the best way to investigate business issues

Unless a phenomenon can be measured reliably, it cannot be investigatedA good knowledge of statistics is essential for all approaches to business researchSlide87

Diagnosing your Research Paradigm H&H p.736

. Case studies should only be used as a pilot project before the main research is conducted7. Using participant observation to collect data is of little value in business research

8. Laboratory experiments should be used more widely in business research

9. It is impossible to generate theories during the course of research into business issues10. Researchers must remain objective and independent from the phenomena they are studyingSlide88

Diagnosing your Research ParadigmH&H p.73 To score, count the number of As and Ds:

More As than Ds – PositivistMore Ds than As – phenomenological/

Interpretivist/Subjectivist

Equal – flexible (Post-Positivist)Slide89

Science and Scientific Method Science “the methodological and systematic approach

to acquisition of new knowledge” (Geoffrey

Marcyzk, David DeMatteo

, David Festinger, Essentials of Research Design and Methodology, John Wiley & Sons, 2005, p. 4) Scientific method, evolved since 13th century, concerns set

of tools, techniques and procedures used by researchers to analyze and understand phenomena and support or discard prior conceptionsSlide90

Essence of the Scientific MethodCharacteristics of the Scientific Method

Objectivity

Systematic Analysis

Logical Interpretation of ResultsElements of the Scientific Method

Empirical Approach

ObservationsQuestionsHypothesesExperimentsAnalysisConclusionReplicationBasic ResearchApplied ResearchScientificMethod

Information or

Ideas for alternativeCourses of action

General LawsSlide91

4 Scientific Argument TypesDeduction

: Conclusion is drawn from a set of propositions (pure logic)

Induction: One draws general conclusions from particular facts

that appear to serve as evidence Probability: Passes from frequencies within a known domain to conclusions of stated likelihood, Statistical: On the average, a certain percentage of a set of entities will

satisfy the stated conditions. Slide92

MathematicsComputer Simulations

Logical/Rational

Thought

Laws of Nature

Deductive

4 Scientific Arguments typesTemporal DataSpectral DataImagesCorrelations/PatternsRules of NatureInductive

Temporal Data

Likelihood

Generalities of Nature

Probabilistic

Sets of Data

Trends

Predictions of Nature

Statistical

The fact that scientific reasoning is so often successful is a

remarkable property of the Universe, the

dependability of Nature

. Slide93

Inductivisim vs. DeductivismExploratoryStarts by observing, ends with a theory

May be necessary to uncover relationships when little is known about a phenomena (i.e., AIDS in 1980’s)

Confirmatory

Starts with a theory, ends with test resultsIs considered the gold standard for conducting scientific researchSlide94

Adapted from, Kuhn, Thomas (1961) "The Function of Measurement in Modern Physical

Science."

in

The Essential Tension. (1977) Chicago, IL: University

of Chicago Press, pp. 178-224.

TheoriesResultsTheoryExperiment1.414

1.418

1.732

1.725

2.236

2.237

Manipulation

Logic and Math

(X)

f

1

(X)

(X)

f

2

(X)

…………

(X)

f

n

(X)

Quantitative

Confirmation

“Deductive”

Qualitative

Exploration

“Inductive”

Reasonable

Agreement

Qualitative

vs.

Quantitative

ObservationsSlide95

Deductive Reasoning

Theory

Hypotheses

Observation

Confirmation

and finally check to see if the data confirms (supports) our hypotheses and theory or not(Is our theory valid or not?)Deductive reasoning starts with a Given Theory

as the basis for which we develop

Hypothesesand then acquire

Specific Data

through

Observation

or

ExperimentationSlide96

Inductive Reasoning

Observation

Pattern

Tentative Hypothesis

Theory

As foundationfor a TheoryInductive reasoning starts with a Specific Observation as the basis for which we develop a

General Pattern

and Tentative HypothesisSlide97

Flow of Research:Top to Bottom Approach

Source:

http://

trochim.human.cornell.edu/kb/strucres.htm Slide98

To support these methods, a scientist also uses a large amount of skepticism to search for any fallacies in hypothesis or scientific arguments.

Note that there is an emphasis on falsification, not verification

.

If a theory passes any test then our confidence in the theory is reinforced, but it is never proven correct in a mathematical sense.Thus, a powerful hypothesis is one that is highly vulnerable to falsification and that can be tested in many ways.Slide99

FalsificationFor a theory to be scientific, its hypotheses must be falsifiableThe possibility must exist for the data to prove you wrong

When collecting data one must not collect data simply to support one’s hypothesisThis is essentially what an inductive approach does, as the hypothesis is based on the data

Difference between science and philosophy / religionSlide100

Pluto…a planet or not?In a move that's already generating controversy and will force textbooks to be rewritten,

Pluto will now be dubbed a dwarf planet.

But it's no longer part of an exclusive club, since there are more than 40 of these dwarfs

A clear majority of researchers voted for the new definition at a meeting of the International Astronomical Union (IAU) in Prague, in the Czech Republic. The IAU decides the official names of all celestial bodies. The tough decision comes after a multiyear search for a scientific definition of the word "planet."

The term never had an official meaning before.

What Is a Planet Today? According to the new definition, a full-fledged planet is an object that orbits the sun and is large enough to have become round due to the force of its own gravity. In addition, a planet has to dominate the neighborhood around its orbit. Pluto has been demoted because it does not dominate its neighborhood. Charon, its large "moon," is only about half the size of Pluto, while all the true planets are far larger than their moons.Slide101

Tying it all TogetherUse theory to develop research questionsFormulate specific, empirical hypotheses

that are falsifiableSelect

variables based on theory that are empirically measurable

Try to prove your hypothesis wrong Test the falsification (null) hypothesisState the limitations of your researchSlide102

Theory and ResearchWhat is Theory?

“…the language that allows us to move from observation to observation and to make sense of similarities and differences.”

Rudestam & Newton, 2001, p. 10.Slide103

Theory and ResearchRelationship between theory and research

Consider the Research Process Wheel as proposed by

Rudestam

& Newton in Surviving Your Dissertation (2001).Slide104

Deduction

Induction

Nomothetic

Idiographic

Hypothesis Testing

Empirical GeneralizationTheoreticalGeneral/Abstract

Specific/Concrete

Empirical

Verify

Confirm

Evaluate

Falsify

Generalized Wheel of ScienceSlide105

Information Systems Research & PracticeTheory:

ideas

Practice:

use of ideas

Leads to

Leads toafter Checkland & Holwell (1998)Slide106

REALLY What is a Theory? (1) Zikmund (p. 41) has defined a

theory as “a coherent set of general propositions, used as principles of explanation

of the amount of the apparent relationships of certain observed

phenomona” Concepts (or constructs) are the basic building blocks of theory development. A concept (or construct) is a generalized idea about a class of objects, attributes, occurrences, or processes that have been given a name. A concept (or construct) may vary in terms of the level of abstraction THEY ARE PART OF THEORY Examples: Productivity, Leadership, Morale, Assets, Inflation Slide107

What is a Theory? (2) A Proposition is a statement concerned with the relationship between concepts. It asserts a universal connection and logical linkage between concepts. Propositions are at a higher level of abstraction than

concepts. THEY ARE PART OF THEORY

Example: Smoking is injurious to health

Hypotheses are propositions which are empirically testable. They are usually concerned with the relationships between variables. THEY ARE NOT PART OF A THEORY. Example: Increasing salary by 10% will double the production

Slide108

Theory ConstructionBaconian Inductivism (Interpretivist

)Start with what we observe (data)Look for patterns among data

Create theory based on observed patternsEmpirically test predictions of the theory

ProblemsNot all phenomena can be observedDepends on large number of observationsSlide109

Theory Construction, continuedHypothetico – Deductivism (Positivist)

Propose theoryEither a pre-existing theory or one that logically makes senseGenerate testable hypothesis

Collect empirical data

Test hypothesis, interpret resultsProblemsAs theories become outdated, knowledge derived from this method may become meaninglessSlide110
Slide111

Abstraction Ladder

Observations of Objects, Events and Occurrences (Reality)

Concepts / Constructs

Propositions

Theory

Levels of AbstractionEmpirical LevelAbstract LevelSlide112

Theory and ResearchTheory functions three ways in research:Theories prevent our being taken in by flukes.

Theories make sense of observed patterns in ways that can suggest other possibilities.

Theories can direct research efforts, pointing toward likely discoveries through empirical observation.Slide113

Theory as ExplanationResearch questions call for explanations

Answers or Explanations come from theorieSlide114

Vocabulary

Concept

:

“a word or a symbol to represent an idea”Slide115

Vocabulary

Theory

:

“concepts and their interrelationships”Slide116

Vocabulary

Model

:

“imitation of an existing object”Slide117

Logics

{Good, Fair, Poor}

Approximation

Denotation

{True, False

}(supported or not)WorldModelTheorySlide118

Vocabulary

Hypothesis

:

“testable statement based on theory”

Prediction

about what Patterns we will see in the world if our theory is correctSlide119

Vocabulary

Operational

Definition:

(variable) “concept at a level that is testable”

(

measurable)Slide120

concept

concept

concept

concept

concept

conceptconceptconceptconcept

THEORY

H

ypotheses

O

perational

D

efinition

(variables)Slide121

TheoryBased on well established facts, testable hypotheses are formed.

The process of testing "leads scientists to accord a special dignity to those hypotheses that

accumulate substantial

observational or experimental support." This "special dignity" is denoted by the granting of the title "theory," which, when it "explains a large and diverse body of facts" is considered "robust" and if it "consistently predicts new phenomena that are subsequently observed," it is "

reliable."Slide122

What Theory is NOT1. References are not theory.

2. Data are not theory

3. Lists of Variables or Constructs are Not Theory

4. Diagrams are Not Theory5. Hypothesis (or predictions) are not theory 6. Theory is not something one "adds" to data, or something that one transforms from weaker to stronger by means of graphics or references, or can be feigned by flashy conceptual performance.

Sutton, R. I. and

Staw, B. M. (1995) What theory is not. ASQ 40:371-384.Weick, Karl, E. What Theory is Not, Theorizing Is, ASQ, 1995, 40:385-390.Slide123

TEN MYTHS OF SCIENCE: REEXAMINING WHAT WE THINK WE KNOW Myth 1: Hypotheses Become Theories Which Become Laws Myth 2: A Hypothesis is an Educated Guess

Myth 3: A General and Universal Scientific Method Exists Myth 4: Evidence Accumulated Carefully Will Result in Sure Knowledge

Myth 5: Science and its Methods Provide Absolute Proof

Myth 6: Science Is Procedural More Than Creative Myth 7: Science and its Methods Can Answer All Questions Myth 8. Scientists are Particularly Objective Myth 9: Experiments are the Principle Route to Scientific Knowledge Myth 10: All Work in Science is Reviewed to Keep the Process Honest. See: http://amasci.com/miscon/myths10.htmlSlide124

“I grant you evolution was a theory to begin with… but it evolved into a fact a long time ago!“Slide125

Theory

Observations

Develop Hypothesis

To Explain Observations

Test Hypothesis

HypothesisTest TheoryLawTheoryFailFailPassPass

Pass Many Tests

Pass Many Tests

Fail

Hypotheses;

Theories;

LawsSlide126

Theory

Hypotheses

Phenomenon

of Interest?

Small dots

representobservations Large dots representExperimental Results Scientific Theories are relatively large, general concepts.Scientific Laws are smaller, mathematically precise concepts.

Scientific

Law

Scientific

Law

Scientific

Law

Collections of Data

Observations by other scientists

Inductive Reasoning applied

(Specific to General) to develop

General hypotheses

Experiments designed

Through deductive reasoning

(General to Specific)

Controlled experiments provide

new data that is tested statistically

for significance and falsification

Results of statistical tests on new data

Add evidence to support, modify or falsify

the theory (or more rarely the scientific law)Slide127

Theory C

Scientific

Law

Scientific

Law

Theory BTheory ASlide128

TheoryA Causal Model of the phenomenon-of-interest

Drives all subsequent Scientific ActivityHypothesesExperimental/Research Design

Measures

AnalysisConclusionsInterpretationsLimitationsSlide129

Anything Missing?

TruthSlide130

Positivist Perspective

Science = Useful

Science <> TrueSlide131

A Useful Model is often

Better Than TruthSlide132

No scientific inquiry is ever complete, and no scientific theory is ever “final”Nor need it be to be usefulA scientific theory in its current state can be very useful in the present even though it may later be or improved upon or even supercededSlide133

Connecting outputs to outcomes is a challenge

“

I think you should be more explicit

here

in

Step Two.”My TheorySlide134

Useful Is Better Than TrueSlide135

Name the Phenomenon

Nickezite

BlockSlide136

Describe the Phenomenon

Nickezite

Block

A

BSlide137

Explore the Phenomenon

Bobezite

Block

A

BSlide138

Explore the Phenomenon

A

BSlide139

Nickezite

Block

A

Describe Phenomenon Dynamics

BSlide140

A Useful Theory

One GearSlide141

Truth(Reality)

Many Gears

Belts and pulleysSlide142

The model becomes usefulwhen you want to do something newSlide143

ThereforeFor matters of cause-and-effect

A useful model (Theory

)

Is/Can Be better than Truth (Reality)Slide144

What is a Theory?“A set of interrelated constructs (variables), definitions, and propositions that presents a systematic view of phenomena by specifying relations among constructs, with the purpose of explaining natural phenomena.”

Kerlinger, F. N. (1979) Behavioral Research: A conceptual Approach. New York, NY, USA: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.

To this add “

Theoretical Rationale” “Specifying how and why the constructs and relational statement are interrelated.”Labovitz and Hagedorn (1971) Introduction to Social Research. New York, NY, USA. McGraw-Hill.Slide145

A Good TheoryShould explain existing dataExplain a range of related observationsAllow statements to be made

about the worldAllow predictions about the future

Have meaningful

implicationsTaken from Davey et al. (2004)Slide146

What is a Theory?Causal ModelInternally Consistent Explains and/or predicts

Proposes mechanisms of causationTestableSlide147

Structure of a Theory Axioms (Assumptions) Propositions (Causes and Effects)Slide148

SubstructionA strategy to help you understand the theory and methods (operational system) in a research studyApplies to empirical, quantitative research studies

There is no word, Substruction, in the dictionary. It has an inductive meaning, constructing and a deductive meaning, deconstructing

HeuristicSlide149

Substruction

Theory

(Theoretical system)

Construct



ConceptDeductive

(Qualitative)





Methods

(Operational System)

Measures



Scaling/Data analysis







(Quantitative)







InductiveSlide150

Substruction: Building Blocks or Statements of Relationships

Construct

Pain

Axiom

ConstructQuality of LifeConceptIntensity



Proposition

Concept

Functional status



Measure

10 cm scale

Hypothesis

Measure

mobility scale

Theoretical Model

Measurement ModelSlide151

Statements of Relationships

Construct

:

Postulate

:

Statement of relationship between a construct and conceptsPain consists of three concepts

Concepts

:

Intensity

Location

DurationSlide152

Basic ConceptsHypothesis

States a relationship between two, or more, concepts and suggests that one has an impact on the other

(Grix

2004:42)An Hypothesis is a provisional idea whose merit is to be evaluated. A hypothesis requires more work by the researcher in order to either confirm or disprove it. In the hypothetico

-deductive method, a hypothesis should be

falsifiable, meaning that it is possible that it be shown false, usually by observation. Note that, if confirmed, the hypothesis is not necessarily proven, but remains provisional. (Wikipedia)Slide153

PropositionsFunctional Statements of cause-and-effect that must be logically true if the axioms are trueExamples

P1: Effort toward group goal is a function of goal congruenceP2. Group Productivity is an inverse function of distraction

Basic ConceptsSlide154

Propositions must be...CausalComposed of ConstructsWithout empirical contentLogically derivable from axiomsSlide155

Propositions of Direct CausationProposition 1: Productivity is a function of effort

Proposition 2: Effort is a function of goal congruenceProposition 3: Effort is an inverse function of distraction

Productivity

Effort

Distraction

Goal Congruence+-+1

2

3Slide156

Theory ExplicationExample: What determines musical Taste?Slide157

Important TermsTheoryConceptVariable

IndependentDependentAntecedent

Intervening

MediatingSlide158

Independent Concept (Construct)

Dependent Concept (Construct)

The Simplest Diagram of a Theory

RelationshipSlide159

A Simple T

heory

Peer Group

Musical Taste

InfluencesSlide160

Adding an Antecedent

Construct

Socioeconomic

status

Affects

Peer GroupMusical Taste

InfluencesSlide161

Socioeconomic

status

Affects

Peer Group

Musical Taste

InfluencesAdding a Mediating

Construct

Gender

ImpactsSlide162

Adding an

I

ntervening

ConstructInfluences

Self image

Leads toSocioeconomic statusAffects

Peer Group

Musical Taste

Gender

ImpactsSlide163

Peer group

Musical taste

A

T

hird

Construct ExplanationParental influenceXSlide164

Deriving Theory and Hypotheses

Derived in part from Bacharach (1989).

Constructs

Constructs

Variables

Axioms and Postulates

Variables

Logical

Foundation for

Propositions

Propositions

Hypotheses

Theory

Empirical test

of TheorySlide165

Team

Autonomy

culture

Individual

Usage

Axiom 1 (-)Degree ofFreedomIndependenceDiscretionUsage Intensity

Usage Scope

P1 (-)

P2 (-)

P4 (-)

P3(-)

P5 (-)

P6 (-)

Frequency of use

Duration of use

Percentage of system

features used regularly

Proportion of use

“Eight-item scale adapted

from Langfred” Score

H1a (-)

H1b (-)

H1c (-)

H1d (-)

Theoretical

Model

Measurement Model

(Empirical test

of Theory)Slide166

Shared

Cognition

Heedful

Interrelating

Group

AwarenessP1 (+)P2 (+)P4 (+)P3(+/-)Implicit Coordination Theory (ICT) Causal Process ModelTaskPerformance

(-)

Parallelism

Response

Bias

P6(+)

A4(+)

A1(+)

A3(+)

A2(+)

P7(+)

Measurement Model : Independent Variables

False Alarm Rate

(Non-Errors identified as errors/

Total Non-Errors)

Experimental Control : Dependent Variable

Discriminability

(Sensitivity)

Response

Criterion

Implicit

Coordination

Hit Rate

(Detected Errors/

Total Errors)

Theoretical Assumptions

Supported Constructs

, Postulates and Axioms

Theoretical Proposals

Proposed Constructs and Propositions

Shared

Interface

Self-Scribing

Ability

H1(+); H5(+)

H2(-); H6(-)

H3(+); H7(+)

H4(+); H8a(+)

SDT

Givens

Formalized

Group

Memory

P5 (+)

(-)

166Slide167

Qualities of a Good Theory Parsimony ( simple, small ) Explanatory/Predictive BoundedSlide168

“

If you can't explain it simply, you don't understand it well enough.

”

Albert EinsteinSlide169

Pragmatic TheoryUsually start with propositions and work backward to axioms

Usually start poorly and get betterUse someone else’s theory

whenever you canTechnology has

No Place in your theory(if you tie technology to your theory, what will happen when technology changes?)Slide170

Pragmatic TheoryA good theory will get you to the moon and back safely on the first try

Good theory will do more to save you from drawing “bone-headed” conclusions than any other discipline of positivismGood theory will make you look like a geniusSlide171

Explanation in ScienceCAUSAL EXPLANATION

Common variation The cause X and effect Y should vary together

Order

X precedes YThird Factors The common variation of X and Y should not be due to a third factor ZEmpirical Connection The connection between X and Y is empirical

Theory The connection between X and Y should be deduced from a general theory

Mechanism The mechanism that connects X to Y should be knownSlide172

Scientific Method (Deductive)Phenomenon

Observe

Record

Analysis(Previous Theory)

Synthesize

(Cause -> Effect)Peculiar?HypothesesConstruct TheoryUnify/SimplifyUnderstand Underlying DomainSlide173

Theory

Interest

Idea

Conceptualization

Specify the meaning

Of the concepts and

Variables to be studied

Choice of Research Method

Experiments

Surveys

Field Study

Content Analysis

Secondary data analysis

Comparative

Evaluation

Design

Population and Sampling

Whom do we want to be able to draw conclusions about?

Who will be observed for that purpose

Operationalization

How will we actually

measure the variables

under study?

Observations

Collecting data for

Analysis and interpretation

Data Processing

Transforming the data

collected into a form

appropriate to manipulation and analysis

Analysis

Analyzing data and

Drawing conclusions

Application

Reporting results and

assessing their

implications

Scientific Method

(more detail)Slide174

Cycle of Research and Theory-BuildingPeople notice phenomena.

They gather information about the phenomena.

They build a theory which explains and predicts it.

They share their theory with other people.

The theory is strengthened.

People use the theory to write hypotheses.Are the hypotheses supported?The theory is weakened.

People conduct studies.

The researchers may suggest modifications.

Yes

NoSlide175

Worldview

Theoretical Framework

(Conceptual Scheme, Principles,

mode of representation, Template)Empirical Methods

Problem

Theoretical MethodsBodyof DataTheoreticalModelComparisonPossible Actions: Revise Model Reassess data Redefine Problem Reconsider Empirical Methods Review Theoretical Methods Reconstruct Framework

Rethink Worldview

Cycle of Research

and Theory-Building DetailedSlide176

An Experiment without a theory is meaninglessSlide177

Phenomena:

Large, Odd-Smelling BoxesSlide178

Scientific Instrument: DrillSlide179

Collecting Data Without A TheorySlide180

Collecting Data With a TheorySlide181

A Physicist Uses the ‘Elephant’ Theory

+

=

Fission!Slide182

A Farmer Uses the ‘

Elephant

’ Theory

Fertilizer!Slide183

There is nothingmore usefulthan A Good TheorySlide184

So, what is “Science”?Theory must be founded on natural laws.

Theory must be falsifiable.Theory must

produce hypotheses that are corroborated by evidence.

Disconfirmation is “overblown.” Most research progresses by solving puzzles using the ideas within the hard core of a research program. Rewards go to those who solve particularly hard puzzles.Slide185

Conditions of Science continuedPredictions of new facts that are then corroborated by evidence is the ideal.

Scientific revolutions or paradigm shifts are rare. Challenging or amending the hard core is not what science is usually about.

Changing “how we think about the universe”

occurs at several levels, from resolving particularly difficult puzzles to developing a new paradigm.Slide186

Lessons for Your ResearchSince science is a social enterprise, your work counts only by how it is received by the scientific community

. This reception is partly subjective. You must argue your case in the face of sometimes conflicting and ambiguous criteria.

Even though we may agree on the conditions that make a theory “better

,” we can still disagree and, therefore, argue over which particular theory best fits those conditions.( and still respect each other’s work and be friends.)Slide187

Valid Scientific ArgumentsYou are solving a genuine and significant puzzle within the field.

The evidence corroborates your theory and hypotheses. This is a question of research design. The better your research design, the stronger your argument will be.

Your amendment to the hard core is progressive

. Resolving the puzzle uncovers additional implications that are also empirically corroborated.Slide188

Scientific Arguments continuedSince multiple theories may exist in the protective belt or positive heuristic, your theory is more elegant, broader in the range of phenomena its predicts/explains, and supported better by the evidence than its plausible rivals

.In rare cases, you have sufficiently altered the hard core that you have

created a new research program.Slide189

AYER - LOGICAL POSITIVISM Theories confirmed & areas sewn up

New areas investigated

Less to investigate in each generation

End of Science!Consequences for Information GrowthSlide190

POPPER - FALSIFICATION Theories

not disproved All

results contingent

Each generation re-investigates results Exponential growth of scienceConsequences for Information Growth

Philosophical underpinnings of

science drive it forward and predispose it to exponential growthSlide191

Merton’s NormsMerton’s social norms of scientific conductUniversalism: new work is assessed by universal impersonal criteria

Communality: scientific knowledge should be common propertyDisinterestedness: prime concern is the advancement of knowledge

Organized scepticism: knowledge should be continually subjected to critical scrutiny

Reflects stated values rather than actual behaviour: what they do is not what they say. See Watson’s The Double Helix, for exampleSlide192

IS Research MethodsSlide193

Nicholas C. Romano, Jr.

O

klahoma

State UniversityDoctoral Seminar – MSIS 6333 Wednesday August 21st, 2009

Addressing

Research

Questions

(explanation

or understanding)

Positivism

Focus on

generalizeability

and Causal Explanation

Interpretativm

Focus on

relativism and understanding

Survey

Experiment

Questionnaire

Structured

Observation

Quantitative

Analysis

Case Study

Discourse

analysis

Life History

Ethnography

phenomenology

Participant

Observation

Focus

Group

Interviewing

Grounded theory

Action

Research

Hypothesis Testing

(Aiming to

establish, explain,

Predict causal links

Between key variables

Hermeneutic Inquiry

(‘Thick description’

And in-depth

Understanding)

Epistemological

Paradigms

Methodologies/

Research

Strategies

Methods

(data collection

And analysis)

Methodological field

Bio-psycho-socio-cultureal disciplines and theoriesSlide194

The Research P

rocess O

nion

Sampling

Secondary data

ObservationInterviewsQuestionnairesResearchPhilosophyPositivismRealisminterpretivism

ResearchApproaches

Deductive

Inductive

Research

S

trategies

Experiment

Survey

Case

study

Grounded

theory

Ethnography

Action research

Time

H

orizons

Cross sectional

Longitudinal

Data

Collection

M

ethodsSlide195

Alternative Motivations for Research• ‘Pure Research

' ‘because it’s there’ contribute to abstract, theoretical understanding

•

‘Applied Research' ‘I have hammer, so find a nail’• Instrumentalist Research ‘I see a problem, so find a solution’Slide196

Basic (pure)

Applied

Purpose

Context

Methods

Expand Knowledge Academic Setting Single Researcher Less Time/Cost Pressure Internal Validity Cause Single Level of Analysis Single Method Experimental Direct Observations

Understand Specific Problem

Real-World Setting Multiple Researchers More Time/Cost Pressure

External Validity

Effect

Multiple Levels of Analysis

Multiple Methods

Quasi-Experimental

Indirect Observations

Research

TypeSlide197

Nature of Research Outcomes• Descriptive

Depiction of a behavior or a domain

•

Explanatory Systemic explanation of how behaviors arise ascription of causes to occurrences in the domain• Predictive

Statement of: what behavior will arise, and how;

what occurrences will arise within the domain; what effect will particular interventions have• Normative Declaration of interventions to a desired outcomeSlide198

Three Types of ResearchDescriptive research –

finding out (What, Where, When)Explanatory

research – explaining ; identifying causality; theory/model; prediction (HOW/WHY

)Evaluative research – evaluation of strategies, policies, programs, practices (Value)Slide199

Types of Research Spectrum

To become

familiar

with phenomena; to gain new

insights

; to formulate a more specific research problem or research hypothesis.To portray accurately the incidence, distribution, and characteristics of a group or situation. (Usually not begun with specific hypothesis.)

To

investigate relationships between variables. (Begins with specific hypotheses.)

To test hypotheses of

causal relationships

between

variables

. (Begins with specific hypotheses.)

Descriptive Research

Survey Research

Independent variables (X) not controlled by investigator

Independent Variables

Correlational/Ex Post Facto

(Explore)

(Describe)

(Explain - Predict)

(Control)

Independent Var. (X) controlled by investigator

Exp./Quasi-Exp.Slide200

Research generates knowledge in order to:

Action Change

Within A System Pave The

Way For Change

Build Broader UnderstandingBasic Or Pure ResearchAction ResearchCritical / Radical EthnographyApplied / EvaluativeResearchParticipatory/EmancipatoryTechnical/ Practical

Emancipate Through Action

Expose And Change The Dominate System Slide201

Research ApproachesTwo main classes of approaches:Theory ‘testing’ – apply theory to ‘read’ the data

Theory ‘emergent’ – look for ‘patterns’, understanding emerges from the data

(Hirschheim, 2002)Slide202

Combining ApproachesCase study/action researchleads toResearch question

leads toTheory building

leads toTheory testing with lab. experiments

andTheory testing with field experiments leads toTheory extension and feedback loop to Theory testingSlide203

Research ApproachesMathematical approachesApproaches studying reality

Research stressing what is reality Conceptual-analytical approachesapproaches for empirical studies

theory-testing approachestheory-creating approaches

Research stressing utility of artifactsartifact-building approachesartifacts-evaluating approaches(Järvinen & Järvinen, 1999)Slide204

Alternative Research MethodsConstructivist Methods (“Design”)conceptual development and technical development

Nomothetic Methods (“Confirmatory”)

field research, surveys, lab experiments … using the hypothetico-deductive method

Idiographic Methods (“Exploratory”)case studies and action research(Hirschheim, 2002)Slide205

Research MethodsNon-Empirical TechniquesScientific Research TechniquesInterpretivist

Research TechniquesResearch Techniques at the Scientific/Interpretivist Boundary

Engineering Research Techniques (Design Fits here as well

)Slide206

Research Methods Non-empirical Techniques

The following techniques are detached from real-world data. This is not to say that they are necessarily totally remote or irrelevant, but rather that they are once-removed, depending on synthetic data, or on conceptual thinking about abstractions. The primary techniques are:

Conceptual research

. This is based on opinion and speculation, and comprises philosophical or 'armchair' analysis, and argumentative/dialectic analysis; theorem proof. This applies formal methods to mathematical abstractions, in order to demonstrate that, within a tightly defined model, a specific relationship exists among elements of that model; simulation. This is the study of a simplified, formal model of a complex environment, in order to perform experimentation not possible in a real-world setting;

futures research, scenario-building, and game- or role-playing

. Individuals interact in order to generate new ideas or gather new insights into relationships among variables. A specific instance that is often applied in the information systems discipline is the delphi technique (Delbecq et al., 1975); review of existing literature, or 'meta-analysis'. The literature examined in such research may include the opinions and speculations of theorists, the research methods adopted by empirical researchers, the reports of the outcomes of empirical research, and materials prepared for purposes other than research. Slide207

Research Methods Scientific Research Techniques

The following are common techniques that can be applied by information systems researchers within the scientific tradition:

Forecasting. This technique involves the application of regression and time-series techniques, in order to extrapolate trends from past data;

Field experimentation and quasi-experimental designs. Opportunities are sought in the real-world which enable many factors, which would otherwise confound the results, to be isolated, or controlled for (Cook & Campbell 1979); Laboratory experimentation. This involves the creation of an artificial environment, in order to isolate and control for potentially confounding variables (Hersen & Barlow 1976, Jarvenpaa et al. 1984, 1985, Jarvenpaa 1988, Benbasat 1990a, 1990b, DeSanctis 1990). Slide208

Research Methods Interpretivist Research Techniques

The following are techniques which are unequivocally interpretivist in their style: descriptive/interpretive research. In this techniques, empirical observation is subjected to limited formal rigour. Controls over the researcher's intuition include self-examination of the researcher's own pre-suppositions and biases, cycles of additional data collection and analysis, and peer review;

focus group research

. This involves the gathering of a group of people, commonly members of the public affected by a technology or application, to discuss a topic. Its purpose is to surface aspects, impacts and implications that are of concern. See Stewart & Shamdasani (1990) and Clarke (1999); action research. The researcher plays an active role in the object of study, e.g. by acting as a change-agent in relation to the process being researched. See Clark (1972), Susman & Evered (1978), Mansell (1991), Stringer (1996, 1999), Myers (1997a) and Baskerville & Wood-Harper (1998);

ethnographic research. This technique applies insights from social and cultural anthropology to the direct observation of behaviour. See Harvey & Myers (1995) and Myers (1997a)

; grounded theory. This is a specific technique that it is claimed enables the disciplined extraction of a theory-based description of behaviour, based on empirical observations. See Glaser & Strauss (1967), Strauss & Corbin (1990) and Myers (1997a). Slide209

Research MethodsResearch Techniques at the Scientific/Interpretivist BoundarySeveral techniques can be applied within either a scientific or an interpretivist context.

field study

. The object of study is subjected to direct observation by the researcher (Klein & Myers 1999);

questionnaire-based survey. This involves the collection of written data from interviewees, or the collection of verbal responses to relatively structured questions. See Straub (1989), Kraemer (1991), Kraemer & Dutton (1991), Pinsonneault & Kraemer (1993), and Newsted et al. (1998); interview-based survey. This involves the recording of verbal data from interviewees, which arises in relatively unstructured interviews or meetings; case study. This involves the collection of considerable detail, from multiple sources, about a particular, contemporary phenomenon within its real-world setting. For guidance on the use of case studies within the scientific tradition, see Yin (1984, 1994), Benbasat et al. (1987) and Lee (1989); and for guidance on their use in an interpretivist manner, see Walsham (1995b) and

Myers (1997b);

secondary research. Rather than producing new data, this technique analyses the contents of existing documents. Commonly, this is data gathered by one or more prior researchers, and it is re-examined in the light of a different theoretical framework from that previously used. The documents may also include materials prepared for purposes other than scientific research. Slide210

Research MethodsEngineering Research TechniquesInformation systems research conducted within the computer science and engineering context uses two categories of research technique:

construction

. This approach involves the conception, design and creation (or 'prototyping') of an information technology

artefact and/or technique (most commonly a computer program, but sometimes a physical device or a method). The new technology is designed to intervene in some setting, or to enable some function to be performed, or some aim to be realised. The design is usually based upon a body of theory, and the technology is usually subjected to some form of testing, in order to establish the extent to which it (and, by implication, the class of technologies to which it belongs) achieves its aims; destruction. In this case, new information is generated concerning the characteristics of an existing class of technologies. This is typically achieved through testing the technology, or applying it in new ways.

The design is usually based upon a body of theory. Slide211

Research Types and Methods

Type/ Method

Tests, Measurements

Interviews

Observations

Surveys

Documents

Experimental

P

A

A

Quasi-experimental

P

A

A

Causal-comparative

P

A

A

Correlational

P

A

A

Descriptive

A

A

P

A

Evaluation

P

A

A

A

A

Ethnographic

A

P

A

Action

A

P

A

Case study

A

P

A

A

P = primary method used; A = additional method that may be used.Slide212

Object/

Level

of

Analysis

Theorem

Proof

Laboratory

Experiment

Field

Experiment

Case

Study

Survey

Forecasting and Future Research

Simulation and Game/Role Playing

Subjective/ Argumentative

Descriptive/ Interpretive

Action

Research

Society

Organization/Group

Individual

Technology

Methodology

Theory

Building

Theory

Testing

Theory

Extension

Taxonomy of Research Methods and Appropriate Objects/levels of Analysis

No

No

No

No

No

No

No

No

Possibly (

Small Groups

)

Yes

Modes for Traditional Empirical Approaches (Observations)

Modes for Newer Approaches (Interpretations)

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

No

Possibly

Possibly

Possibly

Possibly

Possibly

Possibly

Possibly

Possibly

Possibly

Possibly

Possibly

Possibly

Possibly

Possibly

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

No

Yes

Yes

Possibly

Possibly

Possibly

No

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Possibly

Possibly

Possibly

Possibly

Possibly

Possibly

Possibly

No

No

No

No

No

(

Galliers

1990)Slide213

International IS Research MethodsSlide214

Design Science IS Research FrameworkInformation Systems (IS) are complex, artificial, and purposefully designed.IS are composed of people, structures, technologies, and work systems.Two Basic IS Research Paradigms

Behavioral Research – Goal is KnowledgeDesign Research – Goal is Utility

Source Al

Hevner Slide215

IS Research CycleAdapted from Hevner

Design

Science

Research

BehavioralScienceResearchIS Artifacts Provide UtilityIS Theories Provide KnowledgeSlide216

Theory Building

Conceptual frameworks

Mathematical models

Methods

Observation

Case studiesSurvey studiesField studiesSystemsDevelopmentPrototypingProduct developmentTechnology transferExperimentation

Computer simulationsField experimentsLab experiments

Adapted from Nunamaker

, Chen and

Purden

JMIS (1991) 7(3).

Systems Development in Information Systems ResearchSlide217

Arizona SW Engineering Methodology

THEORY

CONCEPT

MODEL

PROTOTYPE

ExperimentationOBSERVATIONFIELD STUDY

Adapted from NunamakerSlide218

Arizona SW Engineering Research Cycle

Theory, Concept, Model

Prototypes

Field and Lab Research

Product

Adapted from NunamakerSlide219

Lab & Field Study Objectives

Develop new Process and Tool Uses Develop Metrics for Process and Tool Use

Evaluate usefulness of new Processes and Tools

Identify Process and Tool Improvements Confirm Lab Results in the Field Gain best Practice from Lab and Field Use

Source NunamakerSlide220

Research Road Map Through the Last Research Mile Identify a Real Problem

Proof-of-Concept PrototypeProof-of-Value Prototype

Proof of Self-Sustaining Use

(Production System) Travel the Last MileReal Problem

1.

POC2.POV3.POUAdapted from NunamakerSlide221

Design ScienceDesign is a Artifact (Noun)ConstructsModelsMethods

InstantiationsDesign is a Process (Verb)Build

EvaluateDesign is a Wicked Problem

Unstable Requirements and ConstraintsComplex Interactions among Subcomponents of Problem and resulting Subcomponents of SolutionInherent Flexibility to Change Artifacts and ProcessesDependence on Human Cognitive Abilities - CreativityDependence on Human Social Abilities - TeamworkSource Al

Hevner Slide222

Constructs

Models Methods Instantiations

Algorithms

and Practices that define processes and provide guidance on howto solve problems, that is, how to search thesolution space.Implemented and

Prototype systemsthat show that constructs, models, or methods can be implemented in a working system.They demonstrate feasibility, enabling concrete assessment of an artifact’s suitability to its intended purpose

Vocabulary and Symbols that provide the language in which problems and solutions are defined and communicated.IS Design theories seek to prescribe effective development practices (methods) and a typeof system solution. (instantiation) for a particular class of user requirements. (models)Knowledge BaseAbstractions and Representations that use constructs to represent a real world situation-the design problem and its solution space

Foundations

Theories Frameworks Instruments Constructs

Models

Methods

Instantiations

Methodologies

Data Analysis

Techniques

Formalisms

Measures

Validation Criteria

Rigor

Design Science IS Research Framework (

Hevner

et. al., MISQ, 2004

) USA

Develop/Build

IS Research

Justify/Evaluate

Assess

Refine

Theories

Artifacts

Analytical

Case Study

Experimental

Field Study

Simulation

Applicable

Knowledge

Environment

People

Roles

Capabilities

Characteristics

Organizations

Strategies

Structure and Culture

Process

Technology

Infrastructure

Applications

Communications Architecture

Development

Capabilities

Additions to the

Knowledge base

Achieved by appropriately applying existing foundations and methodologies.

Business

Needs

Relevance

Implementable, synthesize an existing body of research, [or] stimulate critical thinking. among IS practitioners.

Application in the

Appropriate EnvironmentSlide223

Three Cycles of DS Research

Environment

Knowledge Base

Design Science

Build Design Artifacts & Processes

Evaluate Design CycleApplication Domain People Organizational Systems Technical Systems

Problems & Opportunities

Relevance Cycle

Requirements

Field Testing

Rigor Cycle

Grounding

Additions to KB

Foundations

Scientific Theories & Methods

Experience & Expertise

Meta-Artifacts (Design Products & Design Processes)

Adapted from

Hevner

Slide224

Software

Engineering

User

Interface

Design

ReferenceModelingMethodEngineering….Consortial Research Method (St Gallen Switzerland)

ResearchOutline: NeedGap, Goal

Consortium

Agreement

Research

Plan

State of

Instantiations

State of

Models &

Methods

State of

Theories &

Constructs

Domain

Analysis

Design

Evaluation

Diffusion

Scientific

Publication

Practitioner

Publication

Teaching

Materials

Roll-out

Plan

Review

Workshop

Function

Test

Experiment

Simulation

Pilot

Application

Scientific Knowledge

Instantiations

Models

Methods

Theories

Constructs

Practical Knowledge

Business Models

Processes & Structures

Information Systems

Information TechnologySlide225

Organisational Forms of Knowledge Creation

Knowledge Creation

Internal

External

With Exclusive

Exploitation RightsWithout ExclusiveExploitation RightsWith ExclusiveExploitation RightsWithout ExclusiveExploitation Rights

Industrial

Research

1

Collaborative Research

2

With Customers

Or Suppliers

2a

With Neutral

Partners

2b

With Competitors

2c

Contract

Research

3

(adapted from

Brockhoff

1999)Slide226

226Slide227

A Research Framework for the Organizational laboratory

Prediction

Change

Adapted from

Braa and

Vidgen =1997)

The Points represent

Intended Research Outcomes:

Understanding

Points are

Ideal Types

; That is

Weberian abstractions

That are

not attainable in practice.

Research Praxis is represented by

the constrained space of the triangle.

intervention

Reduction

Interpretation

The framework is represented by a triangle

Dotted lines

inside the triangle represent

research dynamics

as

movements

towards

(and away from) the ideal types.

Prediction

is the outcome of positivist modes of enquiry; although a ‘good’ theory does indeed have explanatory power

, the more significant outcome of positivist theories is the ability to control and predict.

Understanding

is the outcome of Interpretivist modes of enquiry; successful Interpretations bring out insider rationalityand promote understanding.Change is the outcome of interventionist

modes of enquiry; successful interventions lead to improvements in the problem situation.

One implication for research praxis is that all three dynamics (reduction, interpretation, and intervention) are, regardless of the research method adopted, co-present, albeit with differing mixes and emphasis.

As the researcher moves towards the prediction point through a process of formalized reduction

there should be greater explanatory and predictive power. The traditional approach to explanation and prediction is experimental method.

Movement toward the understanding point through a process of

interpretation

is associated with greater richness of insight into the role of IS in organizational settings. Understanding is achieved typically through

case studies

informed by schools of sociological thought such as

phenomenology, hermeneutics and ethnography

.

Movement toward the change point is

achieved through a process of

intervention

as typified by

action research

.

For example:

interpretivist

research methods involve a

reducing of the infinite range of factors

that might be considered relevant to a particular inquiry, although such a ‘reduction’ is

not rationalized

through the application of the systematic procedures of positivism.Slide228

Quasi experiment

Field

Experiment

Mapping Research Methods into the Framework

Prediction

(Reduction)Understanding(Interpretation)Change(Intervention)Adapted from Braa and Vidgen =1997)Action

Research

Soft Case

Hard Case

Action case

An experimental design which does not meet the three criteria of multiple treatments (or one treatment and a control group), randomization, and experimental control; but rather attempts to preserve as many of the properties of true experimentation as possible, given the constraints of the research setting.

These are much more common than ‘True’ experiments.

Action research is a way of

building theory and descriptions

within the

context of practice itself

. Theories are tested through

intervention

in the organizational laboratory, that is, through experiments that bear the double burden of

testing hypotheses

and

effecting some desirable change

in the situation. Action research comes in

many flavours

, ranging from formal approaches through to less formalized, more reflective and personal approaches.

an extension of laboratory experiments into an organizational context. There are lots of factors which the researcher cannot control but which could affect the outcomes.

Field experiments aim at controlling a small number of variables which may then be studied intensively. A major advantage is that the experiment is conducted in a real-life setting. A major problem however is the difficulty of finding organizations prepared to be experimented on.

Experimental control is essential and involves taking appropriate steps to eliminate ‘nuisance’ variables, which are factors other than the independent variables that might be responsible for observed changes in the dependent variable.

‘true’ experimental design which meets the criteria of multiple treatments (or one treatment and a control group), randomization, and experimental control;

Empirical inquiry that ‘

investigates a contem­porary phenomenon within its real-life context, especially when the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident

’.

Can be used in three modes: explanatory, descriptive, and exploratory .

Applicable where the research question is of a ‘how’ or ‘why’ nature, where control over behavioural events is not needed, and where there is a focus on contemporary events.

Allow reality to be captured in detail and many variables to be analyzed;

from a positivist stance, problems with case studies include the

difficulty of generalization

,

lack of control over variables

, and

different interpretations

by different stakeholders

A hybrid between interpretation and intervention.

A trade-off between being an observer who can make interpretations (understanding) and a researcher involved in creating change in practice. when doing case studies researchers contribute to change by questioning events and applying new concepts. On the other hand, full-scale action research projects are often not appropriate due to organizational constraints or the nature of the topic to be inves­tigated.

Small scale intervention

with a

deep contextual understanding

is one way of balancing this dilemma.

Interpretivist

approach is concerned with

gaining understanding

; generalization is the movement from a concrete situation to the social totality beyond the individual case.

A soft case study based on ethnographic methods can involve a variety of data collection techniques, such as videotape, and data analy­sis might involve, for example, techniques from grounded theory

From an interpretive position, the validity of an extrapolation from an individual case or cases depends not on the representativeness of such cases in a statistical sense, but on the plausibility and cogency of the logical reasoning used in describing the results from the cases, and in drawing conclusions from them. Slide229

Adapted from Baskerville and Stage

DIAGNOSINGIdentifying or

Defining a problem

ACTION PLANNINGConsidering alterativeCourses of ActionTo Solve a Problem

ACTION TAKING

Selecting a Course of ActionEVALUATINGStudying ConsequencesOf an ActionSPECIFIC LEARNINGIdentification ofGeneral Findings

Development

of a Client-SystemInfrastructure

Cycle Process of Action ResearchSlide230

Questions?