Local attitudes and perceived threats of humanelephant Maureen W Kiny - PDF document

1 120 Local attitudes and perceived threat
120 Local attitudes and perceived threats of human-elephant Maureen W Kinyanjui, Ewan J Brennan, Lydia N TillerSave the Elephants, PO Box 54667, Nairobi 00200, KenyaDepartment of Zoology, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3SZ, United Kingdom*corresponding author: Maureen@savetheelephants.orgOpportunity costs of human–elephant con�ict are complex and pose diverse challenges to both humans and elephants, whether real or perceived. In the Lake Jipe area, on the western boundary of Tsavo West National Pachyderm 121 IntroductionManaging the competition for space and resources between people and wildlife is one of the most complex issues in modern-day conservation. Where elephant ranges and human settlements overlap, this competition intensi�es and human–wildlife interactions become increasingly common. These interactions vary in intensity, scale, frequency and may generate positive or negative experiences (Frank 2016; Nyhus 2016). Negative interactions, mostly human–wildlife con�ict (HWC), are exacerbated by growing human populations living near protected areas, resulting in habitat loss and fragmentation (Ogutu et al. 2016). The wide-ranging nature of Af

2 rican elephants (Loxodonta ) means they
rican elephants (Loxodonta ) means they are particularly prone to interactions with humans. Recent studies have proposed looking at human–wildlife interactions as complex occurrences that can involve both positive to negative interactions and can vary in intensity (Yurco et al. 2017; Frank and Gilkman 2019). Moreover, attitudes and behaviours towards a species may vary over time, in degree and across space, depending how the relationship between humans and wildlife evolves (Frank and Gilkman 2019). Frank (2016) proposes a theoretical framework that categorises these complex interactions along a ‘con�ict to coexistence’ continuum. This continuum contributes to understanding of how human–human and human–wildlife interactions may in�uence individual attitudes or behaviours and motivate a shift in position along the continuum, either towards con�ict or towards Perceptions towards wildlife are complex and diverse, driven by numerous factors such as individual and societal values, culture, personal experiences, emotions, education and wealth (Manfredo and Dayer 2004; Kansky et al 2016). Attitudes are formed through sets of beliefs or sentiments (Heberl

3 ein 2012) and these subjective evaluatio
ein 2012) and these subjective evaluations can determine whether interactions with wildlife are perceived as a ‘con�ict’ or ‘coexistence’. Therefore, attitudes and perceptions shape the scope of an interaction, and a�ect one’s ability to endure the costs associated with the presence of wildlife (Bruskotter and Wilson 2014). Attitudes also shape ideas of risk (Frank and Gilkman 2019). Often there disparity between perception of risk and the actual degree of risk present, and this mismatched perception can fuel negative attitudes towards wildlife even if fatalities or monetary losses from wildlife interactions Incidents of human–elephant con�ict can be a major obstacle that undermines successful community engagement in conservation practices, rural development and e�orts to improve livelihoods (Nyhus 2016; Sha�er et al. 2019). As populations expand into once sparsely populated areas there is a growing need for appropriate community conservation approaches. It is therefore important to move beyond unilateral approaches towards HWC and develop a broader awareness of the multiple dimensions and Lake Jipe is located on the weste

4 rn boundary of Tsavo West National Park
rn boundary of Tsavo West National Park in Kenya, in a landscape in which interactions between elephants and people are becoming more frequent. Although the area is an important dry season refuge for elephants and other wildlife, it has undergone severe ecological degradation, which in turn is negatively impacting the livelihoods of local communities. We conducted a rapid rural appraisal within three lakeside �shing villages to better understand how socioeconomic factors such as unsustainable livelihoods, stakeholder relationships and interactions with elephants in�uence people’s perceptions and attitudes towards elephants. The results were complemented by data from two years of GPS tracking data of an elephant that was Lake Jipe is a shallow, transboundary freshwater lake situated at the eastern base of the North Pare Mountains on the border between Kenya and Tanzania. It has a maximum surface area of approximately 30 , a depth not exceeding 3 m and is fed primarily by the rivers Lumi and Ruvu that originate on Mt. Kilimanjaro approximately 60 km to the north-east. The Lake Jipe basin has a semi-arid climate with average annual rainfall of 600–700 mm, primarily

5 occurring within the March–May and Oct
occurring within the March–May and October–December rainy seasons. On the Kenyan side, a Local attitudes and perceived threats of human-elephant conict: a case study at Lake Jipe, Kenya 122 section of the northern shore lies within Tsavo West National Park (NP), which is part of the ~42,000 km Tsavo Conservation Area and home to Kenya’s largest single population of elephants. The remainder of the lake is within Mata Ward, Taita Taveta County. Here, there are four villages with a total human population of 6,524 (Kenya Despite lying entirely within Taita Taveta County, the local population consists of various ethnic groups, predominantly Taita, Maasai, Luhya and Luo, that have developed a common culture. It is believed that the area was �rst settled by Tanzanians �eeing conscription during World War 1, and further populated by Kenyan refugees evicted from the Tanzanian shores of Lake Jipe during the 1961 national census. In the late 1980s, the Lake Jipe Settlement scheme famously failed when the majority of new land titles intended for the local population were given to o�cials in the Department of Lands and Government. Lake Jipe is a biodive

6 rsity-rich ecosystem surrounded by swamp
rsity-rich ecosystem surrounded by swamp and various wetland habitats. The lake itself is home to the endemic Jipe tilapia (Oreochromis jipe), and a wide variety of bird species, including many that are endemic and/or of conservation concern. The Lake Jipe ecosystem provides the main source of income in the region (Ndetei 2006). Primary livelihood activities of the residents of villages surrounding Lake Jipe include �shing and animal husbandry.As a result of the intensive use of natural resources in what is relatively small system, severe ecological degradation has occurred since the 1970s, and this has had profound impacts on the livelihoods of local people. Deforestation and unsustainable agriculture within the catchment area have resulted in vastly increased soil erosion and subsequent siltation, salinity and turbidity of the lake. These, in combination with unregulated �shing, have caused a near total collapse of the On 11–13 November 2019, in order to understand the socioeconomic conditions of the community and perceptions towards elephants, we carried out a rapid rural appraisal in the three lakesidevillages of Kachero, Mkocheni and Mkwajuni, home to approxim

7 ately 500 permanent residents. We carrie
ately 500 permanent residents. We carried out �fteen 90-minute semi-structured interviews and conducted 63 –× thirty-minute questionnaires. Respondents for questionnaires were selected at random in each village based on availability and willingness. The 15 interviewees were selected based on their roles in the area involving a high degree of social interaction with a wide range of community members. Two anonymous Kenya Wildlife Service (KWS) representatives were also selected for Interview data was �rst analysed by manually coding opinions to identify emerging themes from the interview transcripts. Full interview transcripts were analysed to group similar opinions under the pre-identi�ed research themes ‘socioeconomic context’, ‘human–elephant interactions’ and ‘attitudes and perceptions’. We then used axial coding (Salda�a, 2015) to identify relationships between the themes; for example, how ‘socioeconomic context’ relates to In a complementary analysis, to understand the presence of elephants in the community, we analysed elephant movement data from a bull elephant, Manolo, who was collared close to Lake Jipe in January 20

8 18. Manolo is typically found with a gro
18. Manolo is typically found with a group of bull elephants varying from four to seven individuals. The Savannah Tracking GPS collar was set to record hourly location �xes, and we used 24 months of tracking data (from 1 February 2018 to 31 January 2020) to determine the time Manolo spent in the four di�erent land use types: (1) protected areas; (2) Lake Jipe community land; (3) lake and reed beds; and (4) other community land outside of our study site. Time spent within each of these land use types was further analysed by month and by day–Across the three villages, there were no signi�cant di�erences among our 63 interview subjects in terms of years of residence, family size, number of household members and monthly income. Data from all three villages were therefore pooled for further analysis. The principal challenges identi�ed by the community were perceived con�icts with wildlife (cited as a challenge 123 Local attitudes and perceived threats of human-elephant conict: a case study at Lake Jipe, Kenyaby 29% of respondents), access to drinking water Fishing was the main income generating activity for 52% of respo

9 ndents and the main source of food for 6
ndents and the main source of food for 66% of respondents. However, declining �sh yields have led to food insecurity and 87% of respondents reported having experienced food scarcity in the 12 months prior to interviews. The vast majority (95%) of the respondents to the questionnaire stated that the �shing industry in Lake Jipe has changed over time, and that �shing as an income generating activity is unsustainable because of decreasing size of �sh and yields (47%), lake degradation as a results of increased sedimentation and pollution (33%) and competition When respondents were asked what alternative sources of income are available, 73% stated that there are no alternative income generating opportunities available. Agriculture could possibly provide an Figure 1. The main challenges facing communities in Lake Jipe. Figure 2. Perceived factors impacting changes in Lake Jipe over time. 124 alternative; however, as one respondent (JP03) I don’t like to live with elephants because they threaten our lives, and destroy our crops. We have land but we cannot use it. There is no fence and there is no way for us to protect our cropsElephant sightings

10 within the Lake Jipe communities are a c
within the Lake Jipe communities are a common occurrence, and 73% of respondents stated they saw elephants daily. The number of elephant interactions and sightings were perceived to have increased over recent years. Some elephants were said to have become “local residents”, including the collared Analysis of two years of tracking data showed that Manolo had a home range of 1824.66 km(Minimum Convex Polygon) and spent 43% of time in the Lake Jipe community area, 36% in protected areas (Tsavo West NP in Kenya and Mkomazi NP in Tanzania), 17% in the lake or reed beds, and 4% in other community land, including the Taita ranches and community land in Tanzania (�g. 4).Manolo spent time in both the Tsavo West NP and Mkomazi NP in all months of the study period except for March 2019. Only during May and June of both 2018 and 2019 was Manolo Of those interviewed, 71% claimed to have had negative interactions with elephants, 13% reported to have had positive interactions and 16% had had no interactions. Common complaints about elephants included: (1) elephants blocking travel routes including for students going to school; (2) elephants chasing people and (3) elephants damaging vegeta

11 ble Respondents recalled one human fatal
ble Respondents recalled one human fatality and three injuries caused by elephants within the last decade. Such incidents were reported to occur in the evening when elephants come out of the lake and when visibility is poor.Respondents perceived elephants to be more aggressive than they were in the past (during the 70s and 80s) and this, they maintained, explains recent human injuries and fatalities. Of those interviewed, 55% said they felt fearful during elephant encounters and could not take action as elephants were Positive attitudes towards elephants were expressed by 13% of respondents; they like seeing elephants around yet still fear them. Several interviewees acknowledged they felt privileged to have elephants their “backyard”, but 46% of the respondents believed elephants should remain in the National Parks and Figure 3. Collared elephant, Manolo, walking by Mikocheni village, Lake Jipe. 125 Local attitudes and perceived threats of human-elephant conict: a case study at Lake Jipe, Kenya Figure 4. Collared elephant Manolo’s movement over two years, highlighting the concentration of time he spent in and around the Lake Jipe shoreline area (February 2018–January 2