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Approaches: 1 Origins of psychology Approaches: 1 Origins of psychology

Approaches: 1 Origins of psychology - PowerPoint Presentation

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Approaches: 1 Origins of psychology - PPT Presentation

Learning approaches Cognitive approaches AQA specification The Approaches unit is assessed in Paper 2 alongside R esearch M ethods and Biopsychology Origins of Psychology Wundt introspection and the emergence of Psychology as a science ID: 673435

learning behaviour processes cognitive behaviour learning cognitive processes approach model aggressive models children social research reinforcement information conditioning human

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Slide1

Approaches: 1

Origins of psychology

Learning approaches

Cognitive approachesSlide2

AQA specification

The Approaches unit is assessed in Paper 2 alongside

R

esearch

M

ethods and Biopsychology

Origins of Psychology

: Wundt, introspection and the emergence of Psychology as a science.

The basic assumptions of the following approaches:

Learning approaches

: the behaviourist approach, including classical conditioning and Pavlov’s research, operant conditioning, types of reinforcement and Skinner’s research; social learning theory including imitation, identification, modelling, vicarious reinforcement, the role of mediational processes and Bandura’s research.

The cognitive approach

: the study of internal mental processes, the role of schema, the use of theoretical and computer models to explain and make inferences about mental processes. The emergence of cognitive neuroscience. Slide3

Origins of Psychology

Wundt

Introspection

Emergence of psychology as a science Slide4

Wundt (1832-1920)

I

ntroduced

Psychology as a distinct Science.

O

pened

the first Psychology laboratory in Leipzig,

Germany (1879).

I

nterested

in

conscious experience

and he trained himself and others to describe their experiences using

introspection

(literally looking inside).

observe

our inner

world.

The

person gains knowledge about his or her own mental and emotional statesSlide5

Wundt: Scientific

Wundt carried out his studies under controlled conditions.

He trained assistants in the use of introspection so that they reported their experiences in a structured way.

He used the same stimuli, surroundings and instructions for each person

.

Significance:

marked the separation of modern scientific psychology from its broader philosophical rootsSlide6

Wundt: Evaluation

Introspection is

useful-

Introspection has not been entirely abandoned

.

Research was seen as a

forerunner

to the later scientific approaches.

Lack of Reliability

-

Wundts

method relies on non-observable responses.

Introspections

experimental results are not easily replicated and therefore there is a distinct lack of reliability in these methods.

Introspection is

not accurate-

Nisbett

and Wilson (1977) argue that we actually have very little knowledge of the processes underlying our

behaviour

which therefore conflicts with the values of introspection.

Slide7

Emergence of psychology as a science

1900:

Behaviourists: rejected Introspection

1930’s

: Behaviourist scientific approach dominated psychology (e.g. Skinner)

1950’s:

Cognitive approach: used scientific procedures to make inferences about mental processes

1990’s:

Biological approach: brain scanning techniquesSlide8

Slide9

Learning approaches

The behaviourist

approach, including classical conditioning and Pavlov’s research, operant conditioning, types of reinforcement and Skinner’s researchSlide10

Assumptions

We are born as a blank slate – a

‘tabula rasa’

– everything we become is shaped by the process of

learning from our environment

.

Extreme ‘

nurture

’ end of nature-nurture debate

.

Argues that in order for psychology to be scientific it should focus on

observable behaviour

which can be objectively measured, rather than on things like cognitive processes which can only be

inferred – rejected the idea of introspection!

Lab experiments are the best way to achieve this!

Behaviourists

also assume that humans are like any other organism in how they develop therefore

animals can be studied

to draw conclusions about humans.Slide11

Behaviourism has two main forms of learning

Classical conditioning

Operant conditioning & reinforcement Slide12

Cl

ass

ical Conditioning - Pavlov

Learning through

ass

ociation…Slide13

Bell: Neutral stimulus (NS)

Salivation: unconditioned Response (UCR)

Bell: Conditioned stimulus (CS)

Salivation: Conditioned response (CR)

Food: unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

Before conditioning

During conditioning

After conditioning

Pairing

+

Bell: Neutral stimulus (NS)

Food: unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

Salivation: unconditioned Response (UCR)

How does it work?

How might this be used to learn/condition a fear?Slide14

Operant Conditioning – Skinner

Learning through

consequences

Learning is an active process whereby humans and animals operate in their environmentSlide15

Consequences for behaviour

Positive reinforcement :

Anything which has the effect of increasing the likelihood of the behaviour being repeated by using consequences that are

pleasant

when they happen i.e. food for the rat/pigeon. Giving a child sweets when they clean their room.

Negative reinforcement :

Anything which has the effect of increasing the likelihood of the behaviour being repeated by using consequences that are

pleasant

when they stop. Aspirin to get rid of a headache. In simple terms, it is behaviour that makes something unpleasant go away.

Punishment :

Anything which has the effect of decreasing the likelihood of the behaviour being repeated by using consequences that are

unpleasant

when happenSlide16

Evaluation: behaviourist

Hard Determinism/environmental

determinism:

The

behaviourist

approach sees all

behaviour

as determined by past experiences that have been

conditioned. (ignores free-will)

Many

critics of the

behaviourist

approach have questioned the

ethics

of conducting such investigations with

animals.

Mechanistic view

of individuals as machine like respondents to the environment.

The

principles of conditioning have been applied to a broad range of

real-world behaviours

and

problems. (token economy systems)

The

behaviourist

approach has

scientific

credibility.Slide17

Learning approaches

S

ocial

learning theory including imitation, identification, modelling, vicarious reinforcement, the role of mediational processes and Bandura’s research.Slide18

BEHAVIOURISM

FOCUS ON HUMAN BEHAVIOUR IN RESPONSE TO REWARD/PUNISHMENT

COGNITIVE

FOCUS ON THE INTERNAL MENTAL PROCESS BETWEEN STIMULUS AND RESPONSE

SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

Mind-Behaviour-Environment

The cognitive processes involved in learning.Slide19

Main assumptions

Behaviour

is learned from the environment through the process of observational learning which involves

modelling, imitation, identification and vicarious reinforcement.

The

consequences of others behaviour is observed and this informs predictions and guides future behaviours

(vicarious reinforcement)

Mediational

processes occur between stimuli (model behaves) and response cognitive processes include

attention, retention (memory) and decision making.Slide20

What is the Social Learning Theory?

Developed by

Bandura

Learning

occurs through

:

Modeling

Observational learning

Imitation

SLT take into

account

cognitive

thought processes.

These mental factors

mediate

in the learning process to determine if a response is acquiredSlide21

Bandura (1977)

4

mediational processes to

social learning

A

ttention

– learning can only take place if a model is attended to. More attention is paid to models we identify with or who have status. (cognitive)

R

etention

– behaviour we have observed is stored in memory. (cognitive)

M

otor

reproduction

– some of the behaviour that has been learnt will be imitated. (behavioural)

M

otivational

processes

– the expectation that behaviour will be rewarded encourages that behaviour to be reproduced. No consequences can also lead to imitation of behaviour. Punishment reduces the likelihood of imitation. The consequences can be direct or vicarious (cognitive).Slide22

We are more likely to imitate behaviour if the model we are observing is

:

Same age

Same gender

High social status

Respected/admiredSlide23

Jane dyes her hair

red

because her favourite celebrity has done so.

First Jane paid

attention

to what the celebrity had

done

Jane

then

retained

this

information

Jane

was capable of

reproducing

the behaviour of dying her

hair

Jane

was

motivated

to dye her hair

red and

did

so.

Application of Social Learning TheorySlide24

Vicarious

reinforcement

Bandura stated that we are influenced not just by the behaviour, but by the

consequences

for the person we are observing

.

We observe

and learn

about behaviour

by watching others

being reinforced

or punished

(vicarious

reinforcement)

learning NOT a

result

of direct reinforcement, rather an individuals observation of another person’s

experiencesSlide25

Children observe and learn from role models

Live

models

(family, friends)

Symbolic

models

(through media: TV

, films, games

)

SLT: application

to media violence

They learn which behaviours are worth repeating

They have a

mental

representation

of events they observe, and can anticipate reward and punishment. Slide26

Core study

Bandura, Ross

ans

Ross (1961)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=

zerCK0lRjp8

Aim:

To investigate whether exposure to a real-life aggressive model increases aggression in children.Slide27

Method:Slide28

Method:

Stage

one of the experiment

children

were brought

individually to

the experimental room by the experimenter

.

The room was set out for

play

The model was invited to come in.

The child was placed in a corner of the room and shown how to design a picture

The model was taken to the opposite corner (containing a table, chair, tinker toy, mallet and a 5 foot inflatable

bobo

doll.

The children could only watch the model.Slide29

In the non-aggressive condition, the model ignored

Bobo

and assembled the tinker-toys in a quiet, gentle manner

.

In the aggressive condition the model began by assembling the tinker-toys, but after one minute turned to

Bobo

 and was aggressive to the doll in a very

stylised

and distinctive 

way.

After

ten minutes the experimenter entered and took the child to a new room.

S

tage two of the experiment

There, the child was given toys to play with, which were eventually taken away.Slide30

Stage three

of the experiment

Children were then taken to another experimental room and allowed to play freely for 20 minutes with aggressive and non aggressive toys and a 3 foot

bobo

doll.

Behaviour was rated by observing through a one way mirror.Slide31

Results

Children exposed to an aggressive role model displayed significantly more direct imitation than children exposed to the non-aggressive model.

On

average 12.7 aggressive acts were imitated from

the aggressive model

Girls were more likely to engage in verbal aggression and boys more likely to engage in physical aggression

Watching an aggressive role model had a greater effect on boys than on girls

Boys were more likely to imitate aggressive acts from the same sex role model than girls

Boys

copied 25.8 aggressive acts when the model was

male

On

average girls copied 5.5 aggressive acts if the model was female and 7.2 aggressive acts if the model was 

male.Slide32

Conclusion

The findings support Bandura’s Social Learning Theory. That is, children learn social behaviour such as aggression through the process of observation learning – through watching the behaviour of another person

.

Children exposed to an aggressive model are likely to display aggression and to imitate aggressive acts.Slide33

Evaluation of bobo doll study

Strengths: GRAVE

+ Takes

into account COGNITIVE PROCESSES

+ Has

many applications (gender roles)

+ Great deal of strong experimental evidence - Bandura’s bobo doll  study found children imitate same sex role models +

+ Practical applications e.g. introducing positive role models; having  age restrictions on video games and films so children are not exposed to  undesirable

behaviourSlide34

Evaluation of bobo doll study

Weaknesses: GRAVE

- Does

not explain individual differences – e.g. reinforcement to one child might not be the same for another

Does

not account for ALL behaviour e.g. becomes a criminal, despite not associating with

criminals

It

has taken place in a lab and NOT a real life setting – how do we know children would react like this in the real world – this means it lack ECOLOGICAL

VALIDITY

Generalisability

Ethical Issues

Is

it actual aggression or just harmless

play?

Lack

of validity –

behaviour

may have been learnt but not exhibited  immediately. Lab studies only show what happens within a limit time, so it  may appear

behaviour

has/has not been learnt yet it may be displayed later. Slide35

Social learning- Evaluation

Social learning theory provides a more comprehensive explanation of human learning than behaviourism because

…………………

It emphasises the importance of cognitive factors in learning. Neither classical or operant conditioning can offer a comprehensive account on human learning because cognitive factors such as the mediational processes are ignores. By taking into account these processes which cannot be demonstrated with animal research, SLT provides a more complete explanation of human learning than the behaviourist approachSlide36

Social learning- Evaluation

2. Much

of the research is based on laboratory studies which may involve demand characteristics. This is problematic because

……

The approach relies to heavily on evidence from controlled lab studies. This is evident in Bandura’ (1961) Bobo doll study. The main purpose of the bobo doll is to hit it. The children in the study may have been behaving as they thought was expected. Thus the research may tell us little about how children actually learn aggression in everyday life.Slide37

Social learning- Evaluation

3. The

Social learning theory underestimates the influence

of

Biological factors.

This

is a limitation

because…

The SLT sees

behaviour

as environmentally determined whereas some behaviours may be

innate. For example, a consistent finding in the bobo doll experiment was that boys showed more aggression than girls regardless of the specifics of experimental condition. This may be explained by differences in the levels of testosterone, which is present in larger doses in males compared to females and has been liked to aggression. Both the SLT and Bandura may have underestimated the important the impact

of biological, heredity or maturational factors on

behaviours. Evidence

from these areas of research does show they do have an impact.Slide38

Social learning- Evaluation

4. SLT

can explain gender differences

across

cultures

which

is useful because

………….

It helps us to understand a range of behaviours and how cultural norms are transmitted. It helps us to understands how children learn from parents and each other and also how the media can influence our behaviour.

This is in contrast with the biological approach who explain universal behaviours because human biological processes do not change with behaviour.Slide39

Social learning- Evaluation

5. The

SLT is

less

Deterministic

than behaviourism

because is suggests that there is an element of free will in the way we behave.

This

is an advantage

because

it offers a more realistic and flexible position than is suggested by the behaviourist approach as it recognises the role we play in shaping our environment. Slide40

Difficulty

demonstrating cause and effect – although Bandura research controlled variables and demonstrated

behaviour

was imitated it is difficult to show cause and effect in real life

Benefits of the experimental approach to investigate learning and issues with experimental evidence that might affect the validity of the results and therefore the conclusions drawn.

Provides explanations that relate to behaviours such as aggression and intellectual development.

mediating

cognitive factors have to be inferred so cannot measure extent of their

influence

SLT

does not explain cognitive processes, leaving this to cognitive

psychologists

can

explain learning of outward behaviours, SLT is not so able to explain the learning of abstract notions,

eg

fairness, justice

etc

which cannot be observed directlySlide41

Cognitive approach

The cognitive approach: the study of internal mental processes, the role of schema, the use of theoretical and computer models to explain and make inferences about mental processes. The emergence of cognitive neuroscience. Slide42

Cognitive assumptions

 

A person’s behaviour is determined by the way they think about the

world

The scientific study of mental processes

We can make inferences about what is going on inside someone’s head based on how they are

behaving

Faulty thought processes lead to behavioural

abnormalities

The use of computer models when describing and expl

aining mental processes

(human

mind processes information much the same as a

computer)

Behaviour

is influenced by the person’s schemas – a schema is a set of ideas about a particular concept

The emergence of cognitive neuroscience

 Slide43

What is a Schema?

Schemas are like filing cabinets, as they organise and contain information.

You have millions of these files (schemas) in your mind. For example…

Your mind

Each file in the cabinet is a schemaSlide44

Restaurant Schema

Question: What do you think will happen if you go to a posh restaurant? How might you use a schema?

Your schema will tell you…Slide45

Restaurant Schema

Question: Is your schema for this restaurant the same…Slide46

What is a Schema?

Schemas are ways we

organize and store thoughts and information in our minds

which

are about ourselves and our world around us.

When we take in information we often link it with information we already know.

Question: WHY do we have schemas?Slide47

Why do we have Schemas?

They help us

organise information

in our mind.

Allow us to take short cuts

(process information quickly)

when dealing with huge amounts of information.

However, schemas distort our memory and how we interpret things…Slide48

What do you see?

“Remembering is not a passive but rather an active process, where information is retrieved and changed to fit into existing schemas”

(Bartlett)Slide49

Theoretical and computer models

Scientific models aim to provide simplified, objective representations of how our minds might work

.

Theoretical models

are descriptive versions of how some aspect of human behaviour works, which may be represented visually.

To the right is an example of a

theoretical model

that attempts to explain how our memory

works

 

Computer models

The Cognitive Approach also uses Computer models where the mind is compared to a computer suggesting there are similarities in the way information is processed

.

These models use the concepts of

A central processing unit (Brain)

Coding (to turn information into useful concepts)

Stores (to hold information)Slide50

Theoretical and computer models: Why are humans not identical to computers?

Too simplistic

Ignores the biological complexity of the brain

Does not consider human emotion

Does not consider motivation

Research shows we are affected by human emotion

(

e.g

anxiety and memory)

Difficult to objectively measureSlide51

Machine reductionism

Reductionist

To a

complex phenomenon (like

the human mind and behaviour

)

psychologist often need

to “reduce” it

to it’s smallest parts.

Machine reductionism

Theoretical and computer models use

the analogy of machine

systems,

and the

simple components

of such machines, as a means to describe and explain

behaviour.

This is reductionist as it ignores the complexity of human behaviour and more specifically it ignores the influence of human emotion and motivation.Slide52

Cognitive approach: evaluation

Uses scientific and objective methods

Approach is based on machine reductionism

Based on research that lacks external validity (infer: too abstract and theoretical)

Application to everyday life

Less deterministic than other approachesSlide53

Approaches: 2

Next week:

Biological

approach

Psychodynamic approach

Humanistic approach