David A deSilva Parts of Speech Nouns Pronouns Verbs Adjective Adverbs Prepositions Conjunctions Interjections Parts of Speech 2 Nouns words that name persons places things or ideas ID: 741637
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Slide1
English Grammar 101
A Review of the Essentials
David A. deSilvaSlide2
Parts of Speech
Nouns
Pronouns
Verbs
Adjective
Adverbs
Prepositions
Conjunctions
InterjectionsSlide3
Parts of Speech (2)
Nouns: words that name persons, places, things, or ideas
Pronouns: words that stand in for a noun
Verbs: words that express action or state of being
Adjectives: words that describe nouns or pronouns
Adverbs: words that describe verbs
Prepositions: words that connect a noun and its modifiers to another component of the sentence
Conjunctions: words that join nouns, verbs, or other parts of a sentence
Interjections: words that express emotion, shock, and the like.Slide4
Parts of a Sentence
Every sentence has a
subject
and a
predicate
.
The subject is the noun or the pronoun that the sentence says something about;
The predicate is what is said about that noun or pronoun, i.e., what that noun
does
or what that noun
is
.
“Jesus wept.” (John 11:35 NIV)
“Jesus” is the subject: the sentence is “about” Jesus.
“wept” is the predicate – what is said about Jesus.Slide5
Subjects and Predicates
“And no one in heaven or on earth or under the earth was able to open the scroll or to look into it.” (Rev 5:3 NRSV)
“no one in heaven or on earth or under the earth” is the subject; the main subject would be “one”; the rest is composed of modifiers (or descriptors)
“was able to open the scroll or to look into it” is the predicate; the main predicate would be “was”; the remaining words are complements and objects.Slide6
Subjects and Predicates (2)
“When he had taken the scroll,
the four living creatures and the twenty-four elders
fell before the Lamb, each holding a harp and golden bowls full of incense, which are the prayers of the saints.” (Rev 5:8 NRSV)
The subject is in italics; all the rest is predicate (“when he had…” tells when the elders
“fell
”).
Predicates can be split up; subjects do not always come first.
In this sentence, we find a “compound subject” (more than
one
subject): (1) “creatures” and (2) “elders”. Slide7
Subjects and Predicates (3)
“And the elders fell down and worshiped.” (Rev 5:14b NRSV)
In this example, we find a “compound predicate”: the subject governs more than one verb – (1) “fell down” and (2) “worshiped”
“Then I saw between the throne and the four living creatures and among the elders a Lamb standing as if it had been slaughtered, having seven horns and seven eyes, which are the seven spirits of God sent out into all the earth.” (Rev 5:6 NRSV)
In this example, the subject is one word: “I”Slide8
Subjects and Predicates (4)
Sentences starting with “there” or “it”: these words are often used as a kind of “place marker” for the real subject of a sentence.
“There will be earthquakes in various places; there will be famines.” (Mk 13:8 NRSV)
Grammatically speaking, the sentence is: “Earthquakes will be [=will occur] in various places; famines will be [=will happen].” The grammatical subjects are “earthquakes” and “famine,” not “there” and “there.”Slide9
Subjects and Predicates (5)
“But in these sacrifices there is a reminder of sin year after year.” (Heb 10:3 NRSV)
Grammatically speaking, the sentence is: “But a reminder of sins is in these sacrifices year after year.” The real subject is “reminder.”
“It is senseless to give a pledge, to become surety for a neighbor.” (Prov 17:18 NRSV)
Grammatically speaking “to give a pledge” is the subject (“to become surety for a neighbor” is set in apposition). “To give a pledge is senseless.”Slide10
Complements
Alongside the verb, the predicate often contains other essential parts of the sentence. These may include:
Direct objects
Indirect objects
Predicate nominatives
Predicate adjectivesSlide11
Complements (2)
Direct Objects and Indirect Objects occur with “action” verbs:
The direct object receives the impact of the action. Put another way, the subject enacts the verb upon the direct object.
“I baptize
you
with water for repentance.” (Mt 3:11 NRSV). The subject (“I”) enacts the verb (“baptize”), but it is the direct object (“you”) that gets dunked.
Slide12
Complements (3)
“He went and took the scroll.” (Rev 5:7 NRSV)
The Lamb (“he”) does the going and taking; “the scroll” is the object affected by the Lamb’s actions. “The scroll” is the direct object.
“Bear fruit worthy of repentance.” (Mt 3:8 NRSV)
In this imperative sentence, “fruit” is the thing that has to be borne: it is the direct object of the command, “bear.” Slide13
Complements (4)
Indirect Objects: nouns or pronouns that are the indirect recipients of the action, often the “beneficiaries” of the action (“to” or “for” whom the action happens).
“By your blood you ransomed
for God
saints from every tribe and language and people and nation.” (Rev 5:9 NRSV).
The subject is “you”; the main verb of the predicate, “ransomed,”; “saints” are the ones actually “ransomed,” hence the direct object. “God” is the indirect object: the ransoming of the saints has an indirect effect on God, “for whom” the action happens.Slide14
Complements (5)
“God is able from these stones to raise up children to Abraham.” (Matt 3:9 NRSV)
Looking at the infinitive “to raise up,” the direct object of the infinitive is “children,” the entities actually raised up; the indirect object is “Abraham,” to whom (i.e., in whose favor) these children are raised up.Slide15
Complements (6)
Predicate nominatives and predicate adjectives occur with verbs expressing being or a state of being (also called “linking verbs”).
“God is
able
” (Matt 3:9 NRSV).
Subject: “God”; verb: “is”; “able” is a predicate adjective. The whole point of the sentence is to link God with this quality, or “predicate” this quality upon God.Slide16
Complements (7)
“You are
worthy
to take the scroll and to open its seals.” (Rev 5:9 NRSV)
Subject: “you”; main verb: “are”; “worthy” is another predicate adjective (followed by two complementary infinitives, “to take” and “to open,” further describing this worthiness).
“No one was found worthy to open the scroll or to look into it.” (Rev 5:4 NRSV)
“worthy” is still a predicate adjective, since “was found” (= was proven to be) is still a “state of being” verb.Slide17
Complements (8)
“Jesus Christ is Lord” (Phil 2:11 NRSV)
Subject: “Jesus Christ”; main verb: “is”; “Lord” is a noun that is being predicated of “Jesus Christ” – it is a predicate nominative.
Sometimes a direct object can also have a complement in the form of an adjective or noun predicated, in effect, upon it.
“You have made them a kingdom and priests to our God.” (Rev 5:10 ESV)
“them” is the direct object, but “a kingdom and priests” is also specifically what God made “them” – the phrase is an “object complement.”Slide18
Kinds of Sentences
Declarative: sentences stating something (whether fictive or real, narrative or argument).
“I began to weep bitterly because no one was found worthy to open the scroll or to look into it.” (Rev 5:4 NRSV)
Interrogative: sentences asking a question (thus calling for some declarative statement in response).
“Who is worthy to open the scroll and break its seals?” (Rev 5:2 NRSV)Slide19
Kinds of Sentences (2)
Sometimes an interrogative statement is in transposed word order: the subject is most easily found when one reformulates the question as a statement.
“What did you go out into the wilderness to look at?” (Mt 11:7 NRSV)
“What” is not the subject; it is, in fact, the object of the preposition “at.” The subject is “you”: “You did go out into the wilderness to look at ____.”Slide20
Kinds of Sentences (3)
Imperative: sentences that issue commands.
“Repent, for the kingdom of heaven has come near.” (Mt 3:2 NRSV)
“Bear fruit worthy of repentance.” (Mt 3:8 NRSV)
"Do not weep.” (Rev 5:5 NRSV)
In all these examples the subject – You – is not expressed, but is understood. “Repent, you, for the kingdom….”Slide21
Kinds of Sentences (4)
There are 1
st
and 3
rd
person commands as well, in which the subject will be expressed.
1
st
person plural: ”Let us hold fast to our confession.” (Heb 4:14 NRSV)
3
rd
person singular: “Let him who is without sin among you be the first to throw a stone at her.” (Jn 8:7 ESV)
3
rd
person plural: “If any want to become my followers, let them deny themselves and take up their cross and follow me.” (Mt 16:24 NRSV)Slide22
Nouns
Words that denote a person, place, thing, or idea
Can be “proper” nouns (e.g., Peter, Judea) or “common” nouns (e.g., disciple, region)
Can have “number”: singular, “disciple”; plural, “disciples” (note: usually there is a change of form)
Special ending for possessive/genitive case: “the Lord’s day,” “ the nations’ tribute”Slide23
Nouns
6 Then I saw between the throne and the four living creatures and among the elders a Lamb standing as if it had been slaughtered, having seven horns and seven eyes, which are the seven spirits of God sent out into all the earth.
7 He went and took the scroll from the right hand of the one who was seated on the throne.Slide24
Nouns
6 Then I saw between the
throne
and the four living
creatures
and among the
elders
a
Lamb
standing as if it had been slaughtered, having seven
horns
and seven
eyes
, which are the seven
spirits
of
God
sent out into all the
earth
.
7 He went and took the
scroll
from the right
hand
of the one who was seated on the
throne
.Slide25
Pronouns
Words used in place of a proper or common noun. A pronoun generally has an antecedent – a specific noun named earlier in the discourse for which the pronoun is “standing in.”Slide26
Personal Pronouns
Personal pronouns have “person,” “number,” and “case.”
Singular (nominative): I (1
st
) , you (2
nd
) , he, she, it (3
rd
)
Plural (nominative): we (1
st
) , you (2
nd
) , they (3
rd
)
Singular (objective): me, you, him, her, it
Plural (objective): us, you, themSlide27
Personal Pronouns
And I began to weep bitterly because no one was found worthy to open the scroll or to look into it.
Then one of the elders said to me, "Do not weep. See, the Lion of the tribe of Judah, the Root of David, has conquered, so that he can open the scroll and its seven seals."Slide28
Personal Pronouns
And
I
began to weep bitterly because no one was found worthy to open the scroll or to look into
it
.
Then one of the elders said to
me
, "Do not weep. See, the Lion of the tribe of Judah, the Root of David, has conquered, so that
he
can open the scroll and its seven seals."Slide29
Possessive Pronouns
Singular: mine, yours, his, hers, its
Plural: ours, yours, theirs
“He is the atoning sacrifice for our sins, and not for
ours
[= our
sins
] only but also for the sins of the whole world.” (1 John 2:2)
“My beloved is
mine
and I am
his
.” (Song 2:16)Slide30
Possessive Pronouns
vs. Possessive Adjectives
Pronouns: stand in for nouns – “he atoned not only for their sins, but
ours
.” “Ours” stands in for the noun “sins.”
Adjectives: describe nouns – “he atoned for our sins.” “Our” describes a noun in the sentence.Slide31
Intensive and Reflexive Pronouns
Singular: myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself
Plural: ourselves, yourselves, themselves
Intensive: “He
himself
was not the light, but he came to testify to the light.” (John 1:8)
Reflexive: "Is he going to kill
himself
? Is that what he means by saying, 'Where I am going, you cannot come'?“ (John 8:22)Slide32
Definite Relative Pronouns
Introduce subordinate clauses that, as a whole, function as adjectives (supplying additional information about some noun or pronoun). As with most pronouns, the definite relative pronoun points back to some antecedent (some noun to which it is referring)
Who, whom (objective case of “who”), whose (possessive case of “who”), which/thatSlide33
Relative Clauses
The relative pronoun introduces a relative clause with a verb and, often, objects, modifiers, and prepositional phrases. The entire clause modifies some noun or pronoun in the main sentence (the antecedent of the relative pronoun).
A relative clause generally could have been written as a separate sentence:
You love Lazarus.
Lazarus is sick.
“He [Lazarus] whom you love is sick.” (John 11:3)Slide34
Relative Pronouns (and relative clauses)
“He went and took the scroll from the right hand of the one
who
was seated on the throne
.”
“This is the one
of
whom
the prophet Isaiah spoke
.” (Matt 3:3)
“I baptize you with water for repentance, but one
who
is more powerful than I
is coming after me,
whose
sandals I am not worthy to carry
.” (Matt 3:11)Slide35
Indefinitive relative pronouns
The relative pronoun can also be used where there is no antecedent, sometimes generalized (“whoever, whatever”)
“
Whoever
denies me before others, I also will deny before my Father in heaven.” (Matt 10:33)
“Remember then
what
you received and heard” (Rev 3:3)Slide36
Interrogative Pronouns
Used to ask questions; no antecedent
Who? What? Which?
“Who is worthy to open the scroll and break its seals?” (Rev 5:2)Slide37
Demonstrative Pronouns
Used to “point out” particular objects.
This, these; that, those
Nearer demonstratives: this, these
Farther demonstratives: that, thoseSlide38
Demonstrative Pronouns
“
This
[= “this person”] is the one of whom the prophet Isaiah spoke.” (Matt 3:3)
Then one of the elders addressed me, saying, "Who are
these
[=“these people”], robed in white, and where have they come from?“ (Rev 7:13)
“Blessed are
those
[=“those people”] who mourn, for they will be comforted.” (Matt 5:4)Slide39
Indefinite Pronouns
These pronouns do not refer to specific persons or things, but rather to general types or classes.
Anyone, anybody, anything; someone, somebody, something; everyone, everybody, everything; none, nobody, nothing; all, few, many, several, etc.Slide40
Indefinite Pronouns
“Blessed is
anyone
who takes no offense at me.” (Matt 11:6)
“The kingdom of heaven may be compared to
someone
who sowed good seed in his field.” (Matt 13:24)
“For many are called, but few are chosen.” (Matt 22:14)Slide41
Reciprocal Pronouns
Pronouns indicating that the individual members of a collective subject act back on other members of the group.
One another, each other
“I give you a new commandment, that you love one another.” (John 13:34)
“What are you discussing with each other while you walk along?” (Luke 24:17)Slide42
Appositives
Nouns or pronouns can be used simply to rename another noun or pronoun in the sentence. The second noun or pronoun is said to stand in “apposition” to the first, and is like a parenthetical comment.
“A Savior,
Christ, the Lord,
is born for you today in David’s city” (Luke 2:11)
“Paul and Timothy,
servants of Jesus Christ
, to all the saints….” (Phil 1:1)
“Ananias came down with some elders and an attorney,
a certain Tertullus
, and they reported their case against Paul.” (Acts 24:1)Slide43
Verbs
Action
Jesus
wept
.
I
saw
a mighty angel.
He
went
and
took
the scroll.
State of being
no one …
was
able.
You
are
worthy.Slide44
Verbs (2)
English verbs are often formed by a combination of one or more “helping verbs” with a “main verb.”
The Lion …
has conquered
.
You
were slaughtered
.
They
will reign
on earth.
Helping verbs are an essential part of the formation of the various voices, tenses, and aspects of the English verb.Slide45
Helping Verbs Listed
Common Helping Verbs:
Do, does, did
Has, have, had
Am, are, is, were, was, be, being, been
Modal Helping Verbs
Can, could
May, might
Must
Shall, should, ought [to]
Will, wouldSlide46
Verbs: Person and Number
1
st
Person
Singular: I heal.
Plural: We heal.
2
nd
Person
Singular: You heal.
Plural: You (Y’all) heal.
3
rd
Person
Singular: He, she, it heals.
Plural: They heal.Slide47
Verbs: Voice
Active: The subject of the sentence performs the action of the verb, often upon one or more objects.
He
went
and
took
the scroll.
They
will reign
on earth.
Passive: The action of the verb is
done to
the Subject of the sentence.
You
were slaughtered
.
They
were baptized
by him in the river Jordan.Slide48
Verbs: Tense
(all examples are in active voice)
Present
Simple: I baptize.
Progressive: I am baptizing.
Past
Simple: I baptized.
Progressive: I was baptizing.
Future
Simple: I will baptize.
Progressive: I will be baptizing.Slide49
Verbs: Tenses (2)
Present Perfect
Simple: I have baptized.
Progressive: I have been baptizing.
Past Perfect (Pluperfect)
Simple: I had baptized.
Progressive: I had been baptizing.
Future Perfect
Simple: I will have baptized.
Progressive: I will have been baptizing.Slide50
Verbs: Tenses (Passive Examples)
Present
Simple: I am baptized.
Progressive: I am being baptized.
Past
Simple: I was baptized.
Progressive: I was being baptized.
Future
Simple: I will be baptized.
Progressive: I will be being baptized. (Not regularly used.)Slide51
Verbs: Tenses (Passive Examples)
Present Perfect
Simple: I have been baptized.
Progressive: N/A
Past Perfect (Pluperfect)
Simple: I had been baptized.
Progressive: N/A
Future Perfect
Simple: I will have been baptized.
Progressive: N/ASlide52
Verbs: Moods
Indicative: Narrating Facts or Purported Facts
John
was baptizing
in the Jordan River.
Imperative: Giving Commands
“
Repent
, for the kingdom of heaven is near.”
Subjunctive: Unreal Situations
"If this man
were
a prophet, he would have known who and what sort of woman this is who is touching him, for she is a sinner." (Luke 7:39 ESV)Slide53
Verbal Forms
Infinitives: the bare form of the verb
Present Active (time contemporary with or subsequent to main verb): “To heal,” “to save,” “to call”
Present Passive: “To be healed,” “to be saved,” “to be called”
Perfect Active (time prior to main verb): “To have healed,” “to have loved”
Perfect Passive: “To have been healed,” “to have been loved”
Stative: “To be,” “to have been”Slide54
Infinitives: Uses
As a noun:
Subject of verb: “
To live
is Christ, and
to die
is gain.” (Phil 1:21 ESV)
What
is?
Object of verb: “I want
to know
Christ.” (Phil 3:10 NRSV)
I want
what
?Slide55
Infinitive: Uses (2)
As an adjective:
“By faith Sarah herself received power to conceive.” (Heb 11:11 NRSV)
The infinitive answers the question “
what kind
of power?”Slide56
Infinitive: Uses (3)
As an adverb:
“Abraham … obeyed when he was called
to go
out.” (Heb 11:8 NRSV)
Supplies more information about the verb “called”
“God is not ashamed to be called their God.” (Heb 11:16)
Supplies more information about the adjective “ashamed,” perhaps giving the “circumstances”Slide57
Participles
Active: baptizing
While baptizing by the river, John was arrested.
Passive: baptized
Baptized by John, Peter and Andrew went out to preach.
Participles can form additional voices and tenses with helping verbs, e.g.:
Perfect Active: having baptized
Having baptized many, John’s reputation spread.
Perfect Passive: having been baptized
Having been baptized by John, the tax collectors repented.Slide58
Participles: Usage
Adjectival Participial Clauses: the participles describes some noun or pronoun
“I saw in the right hand of the one
seated
on the throne
a scroll
written
on the inside and on the back
,
sealed
with seven seals
” (Rev 5:1 NRSV)
The participle “seated” introduces a clause that further describes the “one”; the participles “written” and “sealed” introduce clauses giving additional information describing the “scroll.”Slide59
Participles: Usage (2)
Adverbial Participial Clauses: the participle gives more information about the action of the main verb
“These all died in faith,
not
having received
the things promised
, but
having seen
them
and greeted
them from afar
, and
having acknowledged
that they were strangers and exiles on the earth
.” (Heb 11:13 NRSV)
“[not] having received” and “having seen … and greeted” and “having acknowledged” all describe under what circumstances “these all
died
.”
“They were baptized by him in the river Jordan,
confessing their sins
.” (Matt 3:6 NRSV)
“Confessing” supplies information about the circumstances under which the people were being baptized.Slide60
Gerunds (Participles acting as Nouns)
The gerund looks like the present participle in form: baptizing, seeing, healing
As a gerund, however, the word acts as a simple noun, naming the particular action.
“To me, living is Christ and dying is gain” (Phil 1:21 NRSV).
“Living” and “Dying” are both fulfilling the role of nouns as subjects of the verb “is.”Slide61
Verbals and their Complements
Participles, Infinitives, and Gerunds can take all the complements that a normal verb can take:
Adverbs
Direct Objects
Indirect Objects
Adverbial Prepositional Phrases
Predicate Nominatives Slide62
Adjectives
Words used to describe nouns or pronouns. Adjectives are words that answer questions like “what kind of ____?” or “which _____?” or “how many _____?”
Attributive Adjectives (simple descriptors):
Then I saw in the
right
hand of the one seated on the throne a scroll written on the inside and on the back, sealed with
seven
seals; and I saw a
mighty
angel proclaiming with a
loud
voice, “Who is worthy to open the scroll and break its seals?” (Rev 5:1-2 NRSV)Slide63
Adjectives (2)
Predicate Adjectives: the “point” of the sentence is to link a noun or pronoun with a descriptor by means of a linking verb (a form of be, become, etc.)
“No one in heaven or on earth or under the earth was
able
to open the scroll” (Rev 5:3)
“No one [S] … was [V] able [Pred Adj]”
“No one was found
worthy
.” (Rev 5:4)
“You are
worthy
to take the scroll.” (Rev 5:9)Slide64
Adjectives (3)
Substantive Adjectives: Adjectives can be used as nouns, as in the title, “The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly.”
Blessed are
the meek
, for they will inherit the earth…. Blessed are
the merciful
, for they will receive mercy. (Mt 5:5, 7 NRSV)
“meek” and “merciful” are actually adjectives. Here it is understood that Jesus is talking about “those who are meek” or “the meek ones.”Slide65
Adjectives (4)
Adjectives have “degrees”
Positive: “holy,” “righteous,” “good”
“you are my
strong
refuge” (Ps 71:7)
Comparative: “holier,” “more righteous,” “better”
“And the LORD made his people …
stronger
than their enemies (Ps 105:24)
Superlative: “holiest,” “most righteous,” “best”
“The anger of God rose against them and he killed the
strongest
of them” (Ps 78:31)Slide66
Adverbs
Adverbs are words that give more information about the action of the sentence – i.e., the verb – or about an adjective or even another adverb. Adverbs often answer questions like:
How?
Why?
Where?
When?
Under what circumstances?
To what degree or extent? (This is the sense in which adverbs generally describe adjectives and other adverbs.)
Adverbs often, but do not always, end in -
lySlide67
Adverbs (2)
“I began to weep
bitterly
because no one was found worthy to open the scroll or to look into it.” (Rev 5:4 NRSV)
How
was John weeping?
“I know you are enduring
patiently
and bearing up for my name's sake.” (Rev 2:3 ESV)
How
are the believers enduring?
“When the disciples heard this, they were
greatly
astonished.” (Matt 19:25 NIV)
To what extent
were the disciples astonished?Slide68
Adverbs (3)
Like adjectives, adverbs can be compared:
Positive: “bitterly”
Comparative: “more bitterly”
Superlative: “most bitterly”
Irregular comparisons also exist:
Well, better, best
Little, less, least
Badly, worse, worstSlide69
Caution: When adverbs look like prepositions
“And when he had looked
around
at everything, as it was already late, he went out to Bethany with the twelve.” (Mark 11:11).
“Around” is often used as a preposition, as in “
I heard the voice of many angels
around
the throne
” (Rev 5:11 NASU). In Mk 11:11, however, “around” describes the action of “looking” –
Where
did Jesus look? Slide70
Prepositions
Prepositions stand before a noun or pronoun (and its descriptors) to create a prepositional phrase.
The entire prepositional phrase will describe some other noun or pronoun in the sentence (acting adjectivally) or the verb in the clause to which it is related (acting adverbially).Slide71
Prepositions (2)
Some common prepositions in prepositional phrases (from Mt 3:1-12):
in the wilderness
from the coming wrath
to yourselves
at the root
of the trees
into the granary
with unquenchable fireSlide72
Common Prepositions
About, above, according to, across, after, against, along, alongside [of], among, around, at, because of, before, behind, below, beneath, beside(s), between, beyond, by, concerning, despite, down, during, except, for, from, in, inside, instead of, into, like, near, of, off, on, out of, over, past, since, through, throughout, to, together with, toward, under, underneath, until, unto, up, upon, up to, with, within, withoutSlide73
Prepositions (3)
“I tell you, God is able
from these stones
to raise up children
to Abraham
. Even now the ax is lying
at the root of the trees
; every tree therefore that does not bear good fruit is cut down and thrown
into the fire
.” (Mt 3:9-10 NRSV)
Adverbial prepositional phrases:
“from these stones” (giving information about the “raising”)
“to Abraham” (ditto)
“at the root” (where is the ax
lying?
)
“into the fire” (where is it being
thrown?
)
Adjectival prepositional phrase”
“of the trees” (giving information about
what
root)Slide74
Prepositions (4a)
“Then I saw in the right hand of the one seated on the throne a scroll written on the inside and on the back, sealed with seven seals…. And no one in heaven or on earth or under the earth was able to open the scroll or to look into it.” (Rev 5:1, 3 NRSV)Slide75
Prepositions (4b)
“Then I saw
in
the right hand
[adv.:
where
saw?]
of
the one
[adj.: describes
what
hand] seated
on
the throne
[adv.:
where
seated?] a scroll written
on
the inside
[adv.:
how
or
where
written?] and
on
the back
[adv.], sealed
with
seven seals
[adv.: sealed
by what means
or
how
?]…. And no one
in
heaven
[adj.: describes “one”] or
on
earth
[adj.] or
under
the earth
[adj.] was able to open the scroll or to look
into
it
[adv.: look
where
?].” (Rev 5:1, 3 NRSV)Slide76
Caution
Many words that can function as prepositions can
also
function as other parts of speech!
“Since” can be a preposition, conjunction, or adverb
“To” can be a preposition (“to the river”), or it can be part of an infinitive (“to come,” “to sing,” “to look”)
FUNCTION determines what a word is in a given contextSlide77
Conjunctions
Conjunctions are used to link words or phrases together (coordinating conjunctions), set them in relationship to one another (correlative conjunctions), or subordinate one clause to another, usually giving some indication of the logical relationship between those clauses (subordinating conjunctions).Slide78
Conjunctions (2)
Coordinating Conjunctions: and, or, but, so, yet:
“No one in heaven
or
on earth
or
under the earth was able to open the scroll
or
to look into it.” Rev 5:3 NRSV)
The first two conjunctions link three prepositional phrases together as one overarching unit of modifiers describing “one”
The last conjunction links two infinitives, connecting both as complements to “was able”Slide79
Conjunctions (3a)
“You are worthy to take the scroll and to open its seals, for you were slaughtered and by your blood you ransomed for God saints from every tribe and language and people and nation.” (Rev 5:9 NRSV)Slide80
Conjunctions (3b)
“You are worthy to take the scroll
and
to open its seals, for you were slaughtered
and
by your blood you ransomed for God saints from every tribe
and
language
and
people
and
nation.” (Rev 5:9 NRSV)
The first “and” links two infinitives as complements to “worthy” (“worthy” of what?)
The second “and” links two clauses as part of the rationale introduced by “for” (“you were slaughtered and … you ransomed”)
The last three occurrences of “and” link four nouns as the common objects of the preposition “from”Slide81
Conjunctions (4)
Correlative (both…and, neither…nor, not only … but also, either…or):
“At that time his voice shook the earth, but now he has promised, ‘Yet once more I will shake
not only
the earth
but also
the heavens.’” (Heb 12:28 ESV)
The “not only…but also” coordinates “earth” and “heaven” as twin objects of the verb “shake,” while also establishing a stronger relationship between the two objects.
“Store up for yourselves treasures in heaven, where neither moth nor rust consumes and where thieves do not break in and steal.” (Matt 6:20 NRSV)
“neither” and “nor” link “moth” and “rust” as two subjects of the verb “consumes.Slide82
Conjunctions (5)
Subordinating Conjunctions (when, while, after, before, since; where; whether; as, as if; because; though, although; if, unless; so, so that, in order that; as … as; rather than)
Used to connect noun or adverb clauses to some other element in the sentenceSlide83
Conjunctions (6)
“And I began to weep bitterly
because
no one was found worthy to open the scroll or to look into it
. Then one of the elders said to me, ‘Do not weep. See, the Lion of the tribe of Judah, the Root of David, has conquered,
so that
he can open the scroll and its seven seals
.’ Then I saw between the throne and the four living creatures and among the elders a Lamb standing
as if
it had been slaughtered
, having seven horns and seven eyes, which are the seven spirits of God sent out into all the earth.” (Rev 5:4-6 NRSV)
“because” introduces a subordinate clause specifying CAUSE
“so that” introduces a subordinate clause specifying RESULT
“as if” introduces a subordinate clause specifying MANNERSlide84
Conjunctive Adverbs
Not to be confused with subordinating conjunctions, these adverbs can also be used to indicate the relationship between independent clauses:
Accordingly, also, anyway, besides, certainly, consequently, conversely, finally, furthermore, hence, however, incidentally, indeed, instead, likewise, meanwhile, moreover, nevertheless, next, nonetheless, otherwise, similarly, specifically, still, subsequently, then, therefore, thusSlide85
Interjections
Words usually expressing surprise or emotion, drawing attention to something or some experience.
“And those who passed by derided him, wagging their heads and saying, ‘
Aha!
You who would destroy the temple and rebuild it in three days, s
ave yourself, and come down from the cross!’” (Mk 15:29-30 ESV)
“His disciples said, "
Ah
, now you are speaking plainly and not using figurative speech!” (
Jn
16:29 ESV)Slide86
Kinds of Sentences and Clauses
Clauses: groups of related words containing a subject and a verb.
Independent (or main) clauses: An independent clause expressed a grammatically complete thought and can stand alone as a complete sentence.
“John the Baptist appeared in the wilderness of Judea.” (Matt 3:1 NRSV)
“
John wore clothing of camel's hair with a leather belt around his waist
, and
his food was locusts and wild honey
.” (Matt 3:3 NRSV) – a compound of
two
independent clauses.Slide87
Kinds of Sentences and Clauses (2)
Dependent (subordinate) clauses: these clauses are not complete sentences, but must always be attached to a main (independent) clause.
“because
no one
was found
worthy to open the scroll or to look into it.” (Rev 5:4 NRSV)
“so that
he
can
open the scroll and its seven seals.”
(Rev 5:5 NRSV)
“as if
it
had been slaughtered
.”
(Rev 5:6 NRSV)
In each of these three examples, there is a subject (bold) and verb (italic), but none can stand as a complete sentence.Slide88
Kinds of Sentences and Clauses (3)
“By faith Sarah herself received power to conceive, even when she was past the age, since she considered him faithful who had promised.” (Heb 11:11 NRSV)
“By faith Sarah herself received power to conceive.” (Main clause; could stand alone as a complete sentence)
“even when she was past the age” (Subordinate clause)
“since she considered him faithful who had promised” (Subordinate clause)Slide89
Kinds of Sentences and Clauses (4)
Phrases:
These are related groups of words that do
not
contain both a subject and a verb, e.g., prepositional phrases and participial phrases.
in the right hand
of the one
seated on the throne
sealed with seven seals
proclaiming with a loud voice
having seven horns and seven eyes
into all the earthSlide90
Functions of Subordinate Clauses
Adjectival (most often involving
relative clauses
introduced by
relative pronouns
)
“This is the one
of whom the prophet Isaiah spoke
.” (Matt 3:3 NRSV)
“Every tree therefore
that does not bear good fruit
is cut down and thrown into the fire.” (Matt 5:10 NRSV)
“One
who is more powerful than I
is coming after me.” (Matt 5:11 NRSV)
These
can
be introduced also by “where,” “when,” “why,” and “whose”
“He has risen…. Come and see the place
where he lay
.” (Matt 28:6 NIV) – Still answers the question, “
What
place?”Slide91
Functions of Subord. Clauses (2)
Adverbial
Temporal (
when
does the action of the main clause take place?)
“When he had taken the scroll, the four living creatures and the twenty-four elders fell before the Lamb.” (Rev 5:8 NRSV)
Location (
where
does the action of the main clause take place?)
“You knew that I reap
where I have not sowed
and gather
where I scattered no seed
.” (Matt 25:26 ESV)
Manner (
by what means
or
in what manner
does the action of the main clause take place?)
“I saw … a Lamb standing as if it had been slaughtered.” (Rev 5:6 NRSV)Slide92
Functions of Subord. Clauses (3)
Cause (
for what reason
does the action of the main clause take place?)
“I began to weep bitterly
because no one was found worthy to open the scroll or to look into it
.” (Rev 5:4 NRSV)
Concession (
despite what
does the action of the main clause take place?)
“
Although he was a son
, he learned obedience from what he suffered.” (Heb 5:8 NIV)
Condition (
under what circumstances
would the action of the main clause take place?)
“
If anyone hears my voice and opens the door
, I will come in and eat with him, and he with me.” (Rev 3:20 NIV)Slide93
Functions of Subord. Clauses (4)
Purpose (
to what end
does the action of the main clause take place?)
“They watched Him, and sent spies who pretended to be righteous,
in order that they might catch Him in some statement
.” (Luke 20:20 NASU)
Result (to what effect did the action of the main clause take place?)
“The Lion of the tribe of Judah … has conquered,
so that he can open the scroll and its seven seals
.” (Rev 5:5 NRSV)Slide94
Functions of Subord. Clauses (5)
Noun Clauses: the clause as a whole plays a role usually assigned to a noun (like subject, direct object, object of a preposition).
“When he heard
that
Archelaus
was reigning over Judea in place of his father Herod
, he was afraid to go there.” (Matt 2:22 ESV) – the whole “that” clause is the direct object of “he heard”
“
What you sow
must die before it is given new life” (1
Cor
15:36 NJB) – “What you sow” functions, as a whole, as the subject of the sentence.
Note: because noun clauses often play an integral role in the main clause, they are often not separable from the main clause (as adjectival and adverbial clauses are).