Expansionism partially succeeded during era of the Mexican War because for a relatively few years expansionists managed to forge a sectional alliance that convinced Americans that expansion could solve problems that if untreated would destroy the republic The irony would be that expansioni ID: 678936
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Slide1
Land, Race, and Power
2. The Mexican WarSlide2
“Expansionism partially succeeded [during era of the Mexican War] because for a relatively few years expansionists managed to forge a sectional alliance that convinced Americans that expansion could solve problems that, if untreated, would destroy the republic. The irony would be that expansionism itself would very nearly destroy the republic.”
Richard White, “It’s Your Misfortune and None of My Own: A New History of the American West (1991)
Essential quoteSlide3
I. Why War?
II. Borderlands context
III. Settlement and Revolution in TexasIV. Annexation Crisis
V. War
VI. Outcomes
OutlineSlide4
War “One of the most unjust ever waged by a stronger against a weaker nation.”
U. S. Grant on the Mexican WarSlide5
U. S.
Economic expansion
“Manifest Destiny”Belief that “the Anglo-Saxon peoples of America had the right and indeed the duty to spread the blessings of freedom and civilization to those who dwelled in darkness.” (Henderson, Glorious Defeat,
31)
But note latent contradictions—sectional division, racial antagonismImperial competition with British
Oregon dispute unresolved, rumors that Mexico would cede California to bondholders to repay heavy debts
I. Why war?Slide6
Mexico
Badly divided by race, class, region, and ideology (liberal vs. conservative, federalist vs. centralist)— “groping toward nationhood” (Henderson,
Glorious Defeat)Many leaders suspected Mexico would lose, but resented U. S. and wanted to regain honor lost in Texas Revolution
Why war?Slide7
Native nations, particularly in New Mexico and Texas, extremely powerful
Settled local groups—Pueblos in NM
Indios Barbaros—Comanches, Apaches, etc.— “war of a thousand deserts” places most of region under effective native controlEastern Indians beyond US protection—Cherokees, Alabamas, Kickapoos, Delawares, etc.
II. Mexico's Borderlands: NativesSlide8
California, Texas extremely small colonies at time of Mexican independence
No latitudinal connections—north-south links poor, so communities isolated from Mexico
New Mexico larger, more importantSeparatist sentiments widespread
Poor central government
Independent or protectorate status had more to offerCentrifugal tendencies of American commercial expansion and settlement
Mexicans on the BorderlandsSlide9
Mestizaje
widespread
Identities extremely fluid—can’t read border backwards in time: Lorenzo de Zavala (1788-1836), born Spanish subject, becomes Mexican patriot, then Texas empresario and VP of Lone Star Republic
Borderland identitiesSlide10
US population growth:
1800: 5 million 1850: 23 million
Farming frontiersParticularly attractive during depressionsOngoing importance of Jeffersonian myth
Dreams of Pacific commerce
Colonial-era forays into Pacific
Whaling, hide-and-tallow, etc.
Appeal of Mexican Borderlands to U. S.Slide11
A. Jackson invaded poorly defended Spanish East Florida in 1818
1819 treaty signed in consequence
Florida to U.S.Spain to drop claims to Pacific NW
U. S. renounced claim to TX under Louisiana Purchase, forgave $5 million in unpaid claims by U. S. citizens
III. Adams-Onis TreatySlide12
Slide13
Only 2,000 Mexicans in Texas at independence; 40,000+ Indians
Spain wanted settlers in TX to act as bulwark against U. S.
Moses Austin solicited permission to start Anglo-American colonyContract provisions w/ Mexico secured by Stephen F. Austin
Non-Catholics had to convert
Settlers exempt from taxes for 6 yearsChildren of slaves imported to TX to be free at 14, slave trade prohibited
Head of family—4,438 acres for farming, add’l 177 acres if herding
Empresarios awarded 66,774 acres for every 200 immigrants brought in
Settlement banned w/in 52 miles of US border
EmpresariosSlide14
Empresario
commission with Austin provided 80 acres per slave
1825 census: 443 slaves out of total population of 1,800Both Mexican and Coahuilan constitutions banned slavery1836 population: 5,000 slaves among total non-Indian population of 38,470
Slavery in TXSlide15
Cotton production on slave
plantations
Some cotton went to Mexico; rest to New Orleans on U. S. vesselsTraded there for American wheat, as well as cloth and other goods manufactured in Britain
Texans then traded British and American goods to Mexico, in exchange for silver
Texan economySlide16
“The North Americans have conquered whatever territory adjoins them. In less than half a century, they have become masters of extensive colonies that formerly belonged to Spain and France, and of even more spacious territories from which have disappeared the former owners, the Indian tribes. … The territory against which their machinations are directed, and which has usually remained unsettled, begins to be visited by adventurers and empresarios; some of these take up their residence in the country . . . [and] develop an interest which complicates the political administration of the coveted territory.”
General Manuel de Mier y Teran, 1829Slide17
Fredonian Revolt, 1826-27—Haden Edwards and bi-racial force launch rebellion, announce plans to form the Republic of the Red and White People
Efforts to counterbalance Anglo-Americans—Mexicanizing Cherokees, encouraging Mexicans to colonize, etc.—all failed
Centralist government of Santa Anna sought to check separatist tendencies of TX—in 1830, ended tariff protection, forbade American settlement, etc.TX population increasingly divided between old-guard moderates led by Austin, and so-called “war party”—newcomers who found best opportunities gone, and hence had more to gain
By fall, 1835, imprisonment, events in Mexico led Austin into war party: “
I am tired of this government . . . They are always in revolution and I believe they always will be.”
Stirrings of IndependenceSlide18
The Native American role
Increased raiding against northern Mexico by Apaches, Comanches, and others, 1830s-onward
Weaker defenses, new outlets for contraband (including removed eastern Indians)Devastated region
Reduced Mexican ability to resist U. S. invasion
Contrast with American success of Indian removal shaped U. S. views of Mexico as a second-rate powerSlide19
Main issues—central authority vs. local autonomy, including taxes, slavery, land, machinery of government
October, 1835—begins with small skirmish between villagers of Gonzales and San Antonio garrison
Santa Anna marches on TX, concentrates 2,500 troops at San Antonio, defended by 150 at AlamoMarch, 1836—TX formally declares independence; Alamo taken by Santa Anna at cost of 600 Mexican soldiers—all defenders (189 to 257) killed; Goliad, other main Texan fort, surrenders—Santa Anna breaks terms and kills all 342
April, 1836—overconfident Santa Anna routed at San Jacinto—1,300 Mexicans killed, Santa Anna captured
Texas IndependenceSlide20
May, 1836--Santa Anna signed two treaties—one public, one secret—guaranteeing TX independence, setting Rio Grande, not Nueces, as border
New government impoverished, wracked by internal conflict
US reluctant to annex—sectional poisonTX remained bellicose—David G. Burnet, “Texas proper is bounded by the Rio Grande. Texas as defined by the sword, may comprehend the Sierra Madre. Let the sword do its proper work.”
Mexican-Cherokee conspiracy discovered, brutally suppressed in 1839
Texas RepublicSlide21
Pres. John Tyler: unelected, expelled from own party
Hoped to ride Texas issue to popularity
Proposes treaty of annexation, but Senate rejects in June, 1844Whigs running Henry Clay, anti-annexationist; pro-annexation forces maneuver at Dem. convention to nominate Polk over Van Buren
Dem. platform— “reannexation of Texas”
Polk wins slim victory, declares this a “mandate”Tyler pushes Congress to pass joint annexation resolution—issue of slavery supposed to be renegotiated, but Tyler offers annexation on last day and scotches debate
J. Q. Adams:
“the heaviest calamity that ever befell myself and my country”
IV. Annexation CrisisSlide22
As US extends annexation offer, Mexico finally offers to recognize Texas Republic
Texans considered both possibilities simultaneously--July, 1845 convention picks annexation to US by 51 to 1
Feb, 1846—Texas President Anson Jones: “the final act in this great drama is now performed; the Republic of Texas is no more.”Boundary dispute becomes pretext for war
To warSlide23
“The cup of forbearance had been exhausted even before the recent information from the frontier of the Del Norte. But now, after reiterated menaces, Mexico has passed the boundary of the United States, has invaded our territory and shed American blood on American soil. She has proclaimed that hostilities have commenced, and that the two nations are now at war.”
Polk’s messageSlide24
Polk idolized Jackson
Sought to annex Texas and purchase California
Mexican troops, angered by arrogant proposal made by diplomat Slidell, fire on Zachary Taylor’s forces in disputed territoryPolk, invoking need to protect national honor, pushes war declaration through Congress
Greeted w/ enthusiasm—Boston
Times : U. S. victory "must necessarily be a great blessing," would bring "peace into a land where the sword has always been the sole arbiter between factions,” introducing “the reign of law where license has existed for a generation."
V. Presidential politics in war-timeSlide25
Anti-war movement developed
Garrison’s
Liberator: "Every lover of Freedom and humanity throughout the world must wish them the most triumphant success." Closely linked to slavery
Led by Whigs
Whig generals Taylor and Scott became heroes, but Polk lambasted
OppositionSlide26Slide27Slide28Slide29
Santa Fe, 1848Slide30
Z. Taylor: "It is our wish to see you liberated from despots, … to drive back the savage Cumanches, to prevent the renewal of their assaults, and to compel them to restore to you from captivity your long lost wives and children."
Kearny: "From the Mexican government you have never received protection. . . . The Apaches and the Navajoes come down from the mountains and carry off your sheep, and even your women, whenever they please. My government will correct all this."
American promises to northern MexicansSlide31
A daguerreotype showing Major Lucien B. Webster's battery in the mountains north of Buena Vista, Mexico, following an important American victory in the Mexican War. Pbs.org Slide32
Nebel, Battle of ContrerasSlide33Slide34
Not ready for war—fewer than 5,500 soldiers in uniform, so Polk called up 50,000 volunteers
In all, 26,922 regulars and 73,260 volunteers served
Privates overwhelmingly foreign-born; San Patricio desertionTight clique of academy graduates offered excellent leadership
Great leaders of Civil War learned trade while serving under Zachary Taylor and Winfield Scott
U. S. Army during WarSlide35
Larger at eve of war than U.S. forces
Mostly draftees, resulting in much insubordination and foot-dragging
One moderate Mexican politician: “Strictly speaking, the army does not exist. What today bears that name is only a mass of men without training and without weapons.”
Poorly supplied
Santa Anna’s march from San Luis Potosi to Buena Vista—5,000 of 20,000 perish from hunger, thirst, exhaustion, and exposureSupported by
soldaderas,
women who accompanied campaigns, foraging, nursing, and otherwise helping army
Mexican ArmySlide36
US takes Mexico City
Rebellion erupts throughout Mexico—Caste War of Yucatan, peasant revolts in Sierra Gorda states, Veracruz, and Tamualipas
Jan., 1848—treaty negotiations beginVI. War’s EndSlide37
21 months long
13,000 American dead (only 1,700 in battle)
$100 million spentGrowing Latin American fears of “colossus of the North”
But gained:
1.2 million acres of land, 1/3 of present territoryProving ground for generation of generals
Effects of warSlide38
Spanish/Mexican policy emphasized accommodation and integration
Now subject to rapid white settlement, imposition of U. S. control over Indian affairs and strict racial divides
Genocide of California Gold Rush most extreme exampleOutcomes: Native peoplesSlide39
New York
Globe: “There is a spirit abroad which will not long be stayed—a spirit of progress, which will compel us, for the good of both nations and the world at large, TO DESTROY THE NATIONALITY
of that besotted people. It would almost seem that they, like the Israelites of old, had brought upon themselves the vengeance of the Almighty and we ourselves had been raised up to overthrow AND UTTERLY DESTROY THEM as a separate and distinct nation.”
Another annexation debateSlide40
Southern slave-holders—not a field for expanding institution
Racists: Calhoun:
“Ours is a government of the white man.” Equality would be a “fatal error.”
OpponentsSlide41
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, March, 1848
Diplomat Nicholas Trist negotiated treaty with Santa Anna
Trist had been recalled by Polk but continued negotiations
Polk accepted treaty nonethelessSlide42
500,000+ square miles to US
Rio Grande to be southern border of Texas
Alta California to include port of San DiegoGuaranteed property rights of Mexican citizens in cession area
75,000 Mexicans within cession could decide to become US citizens or not
US responsible for Indian incursions originating on US side of border$15 million payment to Mexico
War still resented by many in Mexico
Contingency: Gold discovered by James Marshall in California nine days before Mexico signed treaty; Polk’s announcement of discovery, December, 1848—California would “add more to the strength and wealth of the nation” than all previous acquisitions
ProvisionsSlide43
“We have not come to terms with what it meant to be a conquering nation.”
Antonia Castaneda
“One wonders a bit if the victory in a war that was, after all, a war of aggression to seize territory was not conveniently forgotten by Americans, because it's not one of the more honorable moments in American history.”
David Weber
Viewpoints