Environmental Ethics: The Central Issues Gregory
Description: Environmental Ethics: The Central Issues Gregory Bassham Chapter 1 Ethics: A Brief Introduction Why begin with ethical theories? Though none are fully satisfactory, they provide a helpful vocabulary and framework for thinking about
Related Topics
Download Presentation
"Environmental Ethics: The Central Issues Gregory" is the property of its rightful owner. Permission is granted to download and print the materials on this website for personal, non-commercial use only, and to display it on your personal computer provided you do not modify the materials and that you retain all copyright notices contained in the materials. By downloading content from our website, you accept the terms of this agreement.
Presentation Transcript
slide1. Environmental Ethics: The Central Issues Gregory Bassham<br>
slide2. Chapter 1 Ethics: A Brief Introduction<br>
slide3. Why begin with ethical theories? * Though none are fully satisfactory, they provide a helpful vocabulary and framework for thinking about ethical problems<br>
slide4. Why begin with ethical theories (cont’d)? * These theories sometimes play a key role in some of the environmental debates and viewpoints we will examine in this text.<br>
slide5. Some Key terms: Environmental ethics: A branch of philosophy that attempts to answer basic questions about how humans should understand and relate to the natural environment.<br>
slide6. Some key questions considered in environmental ethics: 1. What environmental responsibilities, if any, do we have to future generations?<br>
slide7. Key questions (cont’d): 2. Is it ethical to eat animals? 3. How concerned should we be with species Extinction?<br>
slide8. Key questions (cont’d): 4. How important is it to preserve wilderness and areas of great natural beauty?<br>
slide9. Key questions (cont’d): 5. How should we respond to climate change?<br>
slide10. Key questions (cont’d): 6. Is it ever morally acceptable to break the law to protest an environmental harm? If so, when?<br>
slide11. Environmental ethics is a branch of philosophy. But what is philosophy?<br>
slide12. Philosophy: The attempt to ask and answer fundamental questions about life, value, meaning, and other important issues that can’t be answered by science or empirical observation.<br>
slide13. Examples of philosophical questions?<br>
slide14. Ethics: The branch of philosophy concerned with moral issues. For example: * How should I make moral choices?<br>
slide15. Examples of ethical questions: * What sort of person should I be? * What should my main goals and priorities in life be?<br>
slide16. Examples of ethical questions (cont’d): * Is there a single correct morality, or is all morality relative to individuals or to societies?<br>
slide17. Examples of ethical questions (cont’d): * What is a just society? * Is everyone entitled to the same basic rights?<br>
slide18. Three areas of ethics: * normative ethics * descriptive ethics * metaethics<br>
slide19. Three areas of ethics (cont’d): * normative ethics: The attempt to answer questions about what is morally right or wrong, or morally good or bad. (our main focus in this text.)<br>
slide20. Three areas of ethics (cont’d): * descriptive ethics: The study of ethical values and value systems in a neutral, objective way. (in other words, the attempt to describe what values individuals or societies actually hold.)<br>
slide21. Three areas of ethics (cont’d): * metaethics: The attempt to determine the meaning of moral terms (e.g., “ought” or “right”) and to answer theoretical questions about the nature and foundation of moral values, without making judgments about what is morally right or wrong.<br>
slide22. Three skeptical views of ethics: * moral subjectivism * moral relativism * ethical egoism<br>
slide23. Three skeptical views of ethics (cont’d): * moral subjectivism: The view that morality is purely personal or subjective in the sense that an act is morally right for a person P just in case P believes the act is morally right.<br>
slide24. Three skeptical views of ethics (cont’d): Problems with moral subjectivism: 1. Implies there are no genuine Moral disagreements.<br>
slide25. Three skeptical views of ethics (cont’d): Problems with moral subjectivism (cont’d): 2. Implies there are no False moral beliefs.<br>
slide26. Three skeptical views of ethics (cont’d): Moral relativism: The view that an act is morally right for a person P just in case P’s culture or society believes that the act is morally right.<br>
slide27. Three skeptical views of ethics (cont’d): problems with moral relativism: 1. Implies that it’s wrong for individuals to think for themselves about moral issues—we should accept whatever society believes.<br>
slide28. Three skeptical views of ethics (cont’d): problems with moral relativism (cont’d): 2. Can’t criticize or reject conventional values one finds deeply wrong or repugnant.<br>
slide29. Three skeptical views of ethics (cont’d): problems with moral relativism (cont’d): 3. Relativism can lead to inconsistency (e.g., if you are a relativist and your society rejects relativism).<br>
slide30. Three skeptical views of ethics (cont’d): Ethical Egoism: The view that one should always pursue one’s own long-term self-interest, regardless of how that impacts on other people.<br>
slide31. Three skeptical views of ethics (cont’d): Problems with ethical egoism: 1. Seems to justify all kinds of unethical conduct.<br>
slide32. Three skeptical views of ethics (cont’d): Problems with ethical egoism (cont’d): 2. Seems arbitrary to say only your interests or welfare matters.<br>
slide33. Three skeptical views of ethics (cont’d): Problems with ethical egoism (cont’d): 3. Provides no means of resolving conflicting interests (e.g., if A and B both desire the same thing).<br>
slide34. Three Leading Ethical theories: * utilitarianism * Duty ethics (aka deontologial ethics) * Virtue ethics<br>
slide35. Three Leading Ethical theories (cont’d): Utilitarianism: The view that an act is morally right if and only if it maximizes net happiness or welfare.<br>
slide36. Three Leading Ethical theories (cont’d): Three influential types of utilitarianism: *hedonistic utilitarianism (maximize net pleasure)<br>
slide37. Three Leading Ethical theories (cont’d): Three influential types of utilitarianism (cont’d): *Preference utilitarianism (maximize net preference satisfaction)<br>
slide38. Three Leading Ethical theories (cont’d): Three influential types of utilitarianism (cont’d): *Pluralistic utilitarianism (maximize net nonmoral value, e.g., knowledge, happiness, aesthetic appreciation, etc.)<br>
slide39. Three Leading Ethical theories (cont’d): Problems with utilitarianism: 1. Not clear that consequences are all that matter.<br>
slide40. Three Leading Ethical theories (cont’d): Problems with utilitarianism: 2. Ignores issues of how fairly happiness or welfare is distributed.<br>
slide41. Three Leading Ethical theories (cont’d): Problems with utilitarianism: 3. Seems too demanding in claiming we should all be full-time maximizers of net welfare.<br>
slide42. Three Leading Ethical theories (cont’d): Duty ethics: the view that some acts can be right regardless of their consequences, simply because they are our duty.<br>
slide43. Three Leading Ethical theories (cont’d): One influential version of duty ethics: Immanuel Kant’s “categorical imperative” version.<br>
slide44. Three Leading Ethical theories (cont’d): Kant’s basic idea: One should act only on the basis of moral rules that one would like everyone to follow.<br>
slide45. Three Leading Ethical theories (cont’d): Kant’s method for making moral choices in a nutshell: Step 1: What “maxim,” or general rule, would I be following if I did what I am thinking about doing (e.g., cheating on a test)?<br>
slide46. Three Leading Ethical theories (cont’d): Kant’s method for making moral choices in a nutshell: Step 2: Ask yourself: Would I want that rule to be followed by everybody?<br>
slide47. Three Leading Ethical theories (cont’d): Kant’s method for making moral choices in a nutshell: Step 3: If yes, the act is morally permissible. If no, the act is impermissible.<br>
slide48. Three Leading Ethical theories (cont’d): Problems with Kant’s categorical imperative method for making moral choices: 1. It’s not always easy to identify the relevant “maxim” one is implicitly following.<br>
slide49. Three Leading Ethical theories (cont’d): Problems with Kant’s categorical imperative method for making moral choices: 2. Seems to generate conflicting moral standards (e.g., that in the same circumstances, some act could be right for one person and wrong for another).<br>
slide50. Three Leading Ethical theories (cont’d): Problems with Kant’s categorical imperative method: 3. Seems to imply that some clearly immoral acts could sometimes be moral (e.g., if an individual is willing to see an immoral maxim universally acted upon).<br>
slide51. Three Leading Ethical theories (cont’d): A better version of Kant’s categorical imperative (the so-called “principle of dignity”): Always treat people as ends and never as mere means.<br>
slide52. Three Leading Ethical theories (cont’d): Basis of the Principle of Dignity: Because humans—uniquely, so far as we know—are rational and moral agents, they have an equal inherent dignity or worth that demands respect and makes it wrong to treat them as mere tools or stepping-stones for other people’s ends.<br>
slide53. Three Leading Ethical theories (cont’d): Problems with the Principle of Dignity: 1. Humans differ in their degree of rationality and moral autonomy. So why do they possess equal dignity?<br>
slide54. Three Leading Ethical theories (cont’d): Problems with the Principle of Dignity (cont’d): 2. What is it to treat a person as a “mere means”?<br>
slide55. Three Leading Ethical theories (cont’d): Problems with the Principle of Dignity (cont’d): 3. Are there times when, for overriding moral reasons, it is acceptable (if regrettable) to treat a person as a mere means?<br>
slide56. Three Leading Ethical theories (cont’d): Another popular form of duty ethics besides Kant’s: Pluralistic duty ethics.<br>
slide57. Three Leading Ethical theories (cont’d): Pluralistic duty ethics: A form of duty ethics that holds that there are several basic moral duties, not just one, as Kant claimed.<br>
slide58. Three Leading Ethical theories (cont’d): W. D. Ross’s pluralistic duty ethics: Seven basic moral duties: * Fidelity * reparation * gratitude<br>
slide59. Three Leading Ethical theories (cont’d): W. D. Ross’s pluralistic duty ethics (cont’d): * Justice * Beneficence * Self-improvement * nonmalificence<br>
slide60. Three Leading Ethical theories (cont’d): W. D. Ross’s pluralistic duty ethics (cont’d): Problems with Ross’s duty ethics: 1. Why these seven basic duties and not others?<br>
slide61. Three Leading Ethical theories (cont’d): Ross’s pluralistic duty ethics (cont’d): Problems with Ross’s duty ethics: 2. How resolve conflicts between basic duties?<br>
slide62. Three Leading Ethical theories (cont’d): A third leading ethical theory: virtue ethics<br>
slide63. Three Leading Ethical theories (cont’d): Virtue ethics: A type of ethical theory that places primary emphasis on questions of character and virtue rather than on consequences, duties, or rules, as other leading ethical theories do.<br>
slide64. Three Leading Ethical theories (cont’d): Virtue ethics cont’d: Two major forms of virtue ethics: Eudaimonist and target-centered.<br>
slide65. Three Leading Ethical theories (cont’d): Virtue ethics cont’d: Eudaimonist virtue ethics (Aristotle): a form of virtue ethics that holds that the proper goal of final end of human existence is happiness or flourishing (eudaimonia, in Greek).<br>
slide66. Three Leading Ethical theories (cont’d): Virtue ethics cont’d: For Aristotle, eudaimonia consists in being a great person living a great life—flourishing in all important dimensions of human excellence (moral, intellectual, etc.).<br>
slide67. Three Leading Ethical theories (cont’d): Virtue ethics cont’d: For Aristotle, virtues are good habits of mind and character that help us achieve eudaimonia. Developing such virtues should be the central focus of ethical life.<br>
slide68. Three Leading Ethical theories (cont’d): Virtue ethics cont’d: Possible problems with Aristotle’s virtue ethics: 1. Does it provide enough concrete guidance in making moral decisions?<br>
slide69. Three Leading Ethical theories (cont’d): Virtue ethics cont’d: Possible problems with Aristotle’s virtue ethics: 2. Is there a single natural goal that all humans share?<br>
slide70. Three Leading Ethical theories (cont’d): Virtue ethics cont’d: Possible problems with Aristotle’s virtue ethics: 3. By focusing on personal happiness or flourishing, is Aristotle’s theory overly focused on the self?<br>
slide71. Three Leading Ethical theories (cont’d): Virtue ethics cont’d: Possible problems with Aristotle’s virtue ethics: 4. By focusing exclusively on human happiness or flourishing, is Aristotle’s theory too human-focused (anthropocentric)?<br>
slide72. Three Leading Ethical theories (cont’d): Virtue ethics cont’d: A non-Aristotelian form of virtue ethics: Target-centered virtue ethics (Swanton, Sandler).<br>
slide73. Three Leading Ethical theories (cont’d): Virtue ethics cont’d: Target-centered Virtue ethics: A form of virtue ethics that focuses on basic goods and the virtues that are needed to achieve those goods.<br>
slide74. Three Leading Ethical theories (cont’d): Virtue ethics cont’d: target-centered virtue ethics seems to avoid many of the problems with Aristotle’s theory, but faces its own problems in defining ”basic goods” and resolving conflicts between such goods.<br>
slide75. Three Leading Ethical theories (cont’d): Bottom line: All the leading ethical theories we examined have their strengths and weaknesses. Though none are fully adequate, they can be helpful in thinking about environmental issues and theories.<br>
slide2. Chapter 1 Ethics: A Brief Introduction<br>
slide3. Why begin with ethical theories? * Though none are fully satisfactory, they provide a helpful vocabulary and framework for thinking about ethical problems<br>
slide4. Why begin with ethical theories (cont’d)? * These theories sometimes play a key role in some of the environmental debates and viewpoints we will examine in this text.<br>
slide5. Some Key terms: Environmental ethics: A branch of philosophy that attempts to answer basic questions about how humans should understand and relate to the natural environment.<br>
slide6. Some key questions considered in environmental ethics: 1. What environmental responsibilities, if any, do we have to future generations?<br>
slide7. Key questions (cont’d): 2. Is it ethical to eat animals? 3. How concerned should we be with species Extinction?<br>
slide8. Key questions (cont’d): 4. How important is it to preserve wilderness and areas of great natural beauty?<br>
slide9. Key questions (cont’d): 5. How should we respond to climate change?<br>
slide10. Key questions (cont’d): 6. Is it ever morally acceptable to break the law to protest an environmental harm? If so, when?<br>
slide11. Environmental ethics is a branch of philosophy. But what is philosophy?<br>
slide12. Philosophy: The attempt to ask and answer fundamental questions about life, value, meaning, and other important issues that can’t be answered by science or empirical observation.<br>
slide13. Examples of philosophical questions?<br>
slide14. Ethics: The branch of philosophy concerned with moral issues. For example: * How should I make moral choices?<br>
slide15. Examples of ethical questions: * What sort of person should I be? * What should my main goals and priorities in life be?<br>
slide16. Examples of ethical questions (cont’d): * Is there a single correct morality, or is all morality relative to individuals or to societies?<br>
slide17. Examples of ethical questions (cont’d): * What is a just society? * Is everyone entitled to the same basic rights?<br>
slide18. Three areas of ethics: * normative ethics * descriptive ethics * metaethics<br>
slide19. Three areas of ethics (cont’d): * normative ethics: The attempt to answer questions about what is morally right or wrong, or morally good or bad. (our main focus in this text.)<br>
slide20. Three areas of ethics (cont’d): * descriptive ethics: The study of ethical values and value systems in a neutral, objective way. (in other words, the attempt to describe what values individuals or societies actually hold.)<br>
slide21. Three areas of ethics (cont’d): * metaethics: The attempt to determine the meaning of moral terms (e.g., “ought” or “right”) and to answer theoretical questions about the nature and foundation of moral values, without making judgments about what is morally right or wrong.<br>
slide22. Three skeptical views of ethics: * moral subjectivism * moral relativism * ethical egoism<br>
slide23. Three skeptical views of ethics (cont’d): * moral subjectivism: The view that morality is purely personal or subjective in the sense that an act is morally right for a person P just in case P believes the act is morally right.<br>
slide24. Three skeptical views of ethics (cont’d): Problems with moral subjectivism: 1. Implies there are no genuine Moral disagreements.<br>
slide25. Three skeptical views of ethics (cont’d): Problems with moral subjectivism (cont’d): 2. Implies there are no False moral beliefs.<br>
slide26. Three skeptical views of ethics (cont’d): Moral relativism: The view that an act is morally right for a person P just in case P’s culture or society believes that the act is morally right.<br>
slide27. Three skeptical views of ethics (cont’d): problems with moral relativism: 1. Implies that it’s wrong for individuals to think for themselves about moral issues—we should accept whatever society believes.<br>
slide28. Three skeptical views of ethics (cont’d): problems with moral relativism (cont’d): 2. Can’t criticize or reject conventional values one finds deeply wrong or repugnant.<br>
slide29. Three skeptical views of ethics (cont’d): problems with moral relativism (cont’d): 3. Relativism can lead to inconsistency (e.g., if you are a relativist and your society rejects relativism).<br>
slide30. Three skeptical views of ethics (cont’d): Ethical Egoism: The view that one should always pursue one’s own long-term self-interest, regardless of how that impacts on other people.<br>
slide31. Three skeptical views of ethics (cont’d): Problems with ethical egoism: 1. Seems to justify all kinds of unethical conduct.<br>
slide32. Three skeptical views of ethics (cont’d): Problems with ethical egoism (cont’d): 2. Seems arbitrary to say only your interests or welfare matters.<br>
slide33. Three skeptical views of ethics (cont’d): Problems with ethical egoism (cont’d): 3. Provides no means of resolving conflicting interests (e.g., if A and B both desire the same thing).<br>
slide34. Three Leading Ethical theories: * utilitarianism * Duty ethics (aka deontologial ethics) * Virtue ethics<br>
slide35. Three Leading Ethical theories (cont’d): Utilitarianism: The view that an act is morally right if and only if it maximizes net happiness or welfare.<br>
slide36. Three Leading Ethical theories (cont’d): Three influential types of utilitarianism: *hedonistic utilitarianism (maximize net pleasure)<br>
slide37. Three Leading Ethical theories (cont’d): Three influential types of utilitarianism (cont’d): *Preference utilitarianism (maximize net preference satisfaction)<br>
slide38. Three Leading Ethical theories (cont’d): Three influential types of utilitarianism (cont’d): *Pluralistic utilitarianism (maximize net nonmoral value, e.g., knowledge, happiness, aesthetic appreciation, etc.)<br>
slide39. Three Leading Ethical theories (cont’d): Problems with utilitarianism: 1. Not clear that consequences are all that matter.<br>
slide40. Three Leading Ethical theories (cont’d): Problems with utilitarianism: 2. Ignores issues of how fairly happiness or welfare is distributed.<br>
slide41. Three Leading Ethical theories (cont’d): Problems with utilitarianism: 3. Seems too demanding in claiming we should all be full-time maximizers of net welfare.<br>
slide42. Three Leading Ethical theories (cont’d): Duty ethics: the view that some acts can be right regardless of their consequences, simply because they are our duty.<br>
slide43. Three Leading Ethical theories (cont’d): One influential version of duty ethics: Immanuel Kant’s “categorical imperative” version.<br>
slide44. Three Leading Ethical theories (cont’d): Kant’s basic idea: One should act only on the basis of moral rules that one would like everyone to follow.<br>
slide45. Three Leading Ethical theories (cont’d): Kant’s method for making moral choices in a nutshell: Step 1: What “maxim,” or general rule, would I be following if I did what I am thinking about doing (e.g., cheating on a test)?<br>
slide46. Three Leading Ethical theories (cont’d): Kant’s method for making moral choices in a nutshell: Step 2: Ask yourself: Would I want that rule to be followed by everybody?<br>
slide47. Three Leading Ethical theories (cont’d): Kant’s method for making moral choices in a nutshell: Step 3: If yes, the act is morally permissible. If no, the act is impermissible.<br>
slide48. Three Leading Ethical theories (cont’d): Problems with Kant’s categorical imperative method for making moral choices: 1. It’s not always easy to identify the relevant “maxim” one is implicitly following.<br>
slide49. Three Leading Ethical theories (cont’d): Problems with Kant’s categorical imperative method for making moral choices: 2. Seems to generate conflicting moral standards (e.g., that in the same circumstances, some act could be right for one person and wrong for another).<br>
slide50. Three Leading Ethical theories (cont’d): Problems with Kant’s categorical imperative method: 3. Seems to imply that some clearly immoral acts could sometimes be moral (e.g., if an individual is willing to see an immoral maxim universally acted upon).<br>
slide51. Three Leading Ethical theories (cont’d): A better version of Kant’s categorical imperative (the so-called “principle of dignity”): Always treat people as ends and never as mere means.<br>
slide52. Three Leading Ethical theories (cont’d): Basis of the Principle of Dignity: Because humans—uniquely, so far as we know—are rational and moral agents, they have an equal inherent dignity or worth that demands respect and makes it wrong to treat them as mere tools or stepping-stones for other people’s ends.<br>
slide53. Three Leading Ethical theories (cont’d): Problems with the Principle of Dignity: 1. Humans differ in their degree of rationality and moral autonomy. So why do they possess equal dignity?<br>
slide54. Three Leading Ethical theories (cont’d): Problems with the Principle of Dignity (cont’d): 2. What is it to treat a person as a “mere means”?<br>
slide55. Three Leading Ethical theories (cont’d): Problems with the Principle of Dignity (cont’d): 3. Are there times when, for overriding moral reasons, it is acceptable (if regrettable) to treat a person as a mere means?<br>
slide56. Three Leading Ethical theories (cont’d): Another popular form of duty ethics besides Kant’s: Pluralistic duty ethics.<br>
slide57. Three Leading Ethical theories (cont’d): Pluralistic duty ethics: A form of duty ethics that holds that there are several basic moral duties, not just one, as Kant claimed.<br>
slide58. Three Leading Ethical theories (cont’d): W. D. Ross’s pluralistic duty ethics: Seven basic moral duties: * Fidelity * reparation * gratitude<br>
slide59. Three Leading Ethical theories (cont’d): W. D. Ross’s pluralistic duty ethics (cont’d): * Justice * Beneficence * Self-improvement * nonmalificence<br>
slide60. Three Leading Ethical theories (cont’d): W. D. Ross’s pluralistic duty ethics (cont’d): Problems with Ross’s duty ethics: 1. Why these seven basic duties and not others?<br>
slide61. Three Leading Ethical theories (cont’d): Ross’s pluralistic duty ethics (cont’d): Problems with Ross’s duty ethics: 2. How resolve conflicts between basic duties?<br>
slide62. Three Leading Ethical theories (cont’d): A third leading ethical theory: virtue ethics<br>
slide63. Three Leading Ethical theories (cont’d): Virtue ethics: A type of ethical theory that places primary emphasis on questions of character and virtue rather than on consequences, duties, or rules, as other leading ethical theories do.<br>
slide64. Three Leading Ethical theories (cont’d): Virtue ethics cont’d: Two major forms of virtue ethics: Eudaimonist and target-centered.<br>
slide65. Three Leading Ethical theories (cont’d): Virtue ethics cont’d: Eudaimonist virtue ethics (Aristotle): a form of virtue ethics that holds that the proper goal of final end of human existence is happiness or flourishing (eudaimonia, in Greek).<br>
slide66. Three Leading Ethical theories (cont’d): Virtue ethics cont’d: For Aristotle, eudaimonia consists in being a great person living a great life—flourishing in all important dimensions of human excellence (moral, intellectual, etc.).<br>
slide67. Three Leading Ethical theories (cont’d): Virtue ethics cont’d: For Aristotle, virtues are good habits of mind and character that help us achieve eudaimonia. Developing such virtues should be the central focus of ethical life.<br>
slide68. Three Leading Ethical theories (cont’d): Virtue ethics cont’d: Possible problems with Aristotle’s virtue ethics: 1. Does it provide enough concrete guidance in making moral decisions?<br>
slide69. Three Leading Ethical theories (cont’d): Virtue ethics cont’d: Possible problems with Aristotle’s virtue ethics: 2. Is there a single natural goal that all humans share?<br>
slide70. Three Leading Ethical theories (cont’d): Virtue ethics cont’d: Possible problems with Aristotle’s virtue ethics: 3. By focusing on personal happiness or flourishing, is Aristotle’s theory overly focused on the self?<br>
slide71. Three Leading Ethical theories (cont’d): Virtue ethics cont’d: Possible problems with Aristotle’s virtue ethics: 4. By focusing exclusively on human happiness or flourishing, is Aristotle’s theory too human-focused (anthropocentric)?<br>
slide72. Three Leading Ethical theories (cont’d): Virtue ethics cont’d: A non-Aristotelian form of virtue ethics: Target-centered virtue ethics (Swanton, Sandler).<br>
slide73. Three Leading Ethical theories (cont’d): Virtue ethics cont’d: Target-centered Virtue ethics: A form of virtue ethics that focuses on basic goods and the virtues that are needed to achieve those goods.<br>
slide74. Three Leading Ethical theories (cont’d): Virtue ethics cont’d: target-centered virtue ethics seems to avoid many of the problems with Aristotle’s theory, but faces its own problems in defining ”basic goods” and resolving conflicts between such goods.<br>
slide75. Three Leading Ethical theories (cont’d): Bottom line: All the leading ethical theories we examined have their strengths and weaknesses. Though none are fully adequate, they can be helpful in thinking about environmental issues and theories.<br>