and Early Modern Europe 14501750 2 Rule of the Ottomans 3 The Ottoman Empire 12891923 Osman leads bands of seminomadic Turks to become ghazi Muslim religious warriors Captures Anatolia with light cavalry and volunteer infantry ID: 812508
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The Gunpowder Empires
Ottomans, Safavids, Mughals and Early Modern Europe1450-1750
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Rule of the Ottomans
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The Ottoman Empire (1289-1923)
Osman leads bands of semi-nomadic Turks to become ghazi: Muslim religious warriorsCaptures Anatolia with light cavalry and volunteer infantryLater, heavy cavalryIn Balkans, forced Christian families to surrender young boys to military service:
devshirmeOften grew up to be exceptionally loyal Janissaries
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The Silk Rope or the Golden Cage
Beginning with the Sultan Bayazit I, policy of fratricideKilled 19 of his male siblings and drowned 7 pregnant harem girlsCarried out by deaf, mute eunuch assassins used silk rope for strangulationBecame matter of written law for future sultans
Distance from throne at death of father, could decide next sultan. First order was to kill his brothersSultan Ahmet I broke fratricide tradition by imprisoning mentally challenged brother in the Kafe or Golden Cage.
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Kafe or Golden Cage (interior)
Extravagant prison cell
Windows only on second floorSlot for delivering food.
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Sultan's Family Tree
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Mehmed II (“the Conqueror,” r. 1451-1481)
Capture of Constantinople, 1453Renamed IstanbulTransformation from warrior sultan to emperor of “two lands” (Europe, Asia) and “two seas” (Black Sea, Mediterranean)Planned to capture Pope, unsuccessful
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Suleyman the Magnificent (r. 1520-1566)
Expanded into Asia, EuropeBesieged Vienna, 1529Develops naval power
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I. The Ottomans: From Frontier Warriors to Empire Builders
Mid-1200s, Mongols defeat SeljuksOttomans emerge dominant
Into Balkans, 14th, 15th centuries1453, take Constantinople Expansion
Middle East, north Africa, EuropeDominate Mediterranean
A. A State Geared to Warfare--Military dominantTurkic horsemen become warrior nobilityJanissary infantry
Conscripted youth from conquered peoples
The Ottoman, Safavid and Mughal Empires
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B. The Sultans and their Court
Use factions against each other Vizier Oversees large bureaucracy Succession
No clear rules
C. Constantinople Restored and the Flowering of Ottoman Culture Suleymaniye mosque, 16th century
Commercial center Government control of trade, crafts
Artisan guilds Turkish prevails
Expansion of the Ottoman Empire
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D. The Problem of Ottoman Decline
Strong until late 1600 Decline Extended Infrastructure insufficient Dependent on conquest
End of conquest brings deficiencies Regional leaders divert revenue
Sultans less dynamic
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E. Military Reverses and the Ottoman Retreat
Janissaries Conservative Stop military, technological reform Lepanto, 1571
Defeated by Spain, Venice Turks lose control of eastern Mediterranean Portuguese outflank Middle East trade
Sail around Africa into Indian Ocean Victories over Muslim navies
Inflation Caused by New World bullion Comes at same time as loss of revenue from control of trade
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STRIPPING THE EMPIRE
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INTO THE JAWS OF DEATH
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Armenian Genocide, 1915
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The Safavid Empire
Ismail young military leader, r. 1501-1524Orphaned, parents killed by enemiesBecomes Shah, proclaims official religion of realm Twelver ShiismTwelve infallible imams after Muhammad
12th imam in hiding, ready to take powerWore distinctive red hat, called quzilbash (“red heads”)
Empire called Safavid, after Safi al-Din (1252-1334), Sufi thinker
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Shiite Pilgrims at Karbala
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Battle of Chaldiran (1514)
Ottoman Selim the Grim attacks SafavidsHeavy use of Ottoman gunpowder technology give them the upper handIsmail escapes, two centuries of ongoing conflictShah Abbas the Great (r. 1588-1629) revitalizes weakened Safavid empire
Reforms administration, militaryExpands tradeMilitary expansion
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The Safavid Empire
II. The Shi’a Challenge of the Safavids
Safavid family
Sufi preachers, mystics
Sail al-Din
Leads revival
1501, Ismâ'il takes Tabriz
Named shah
Chaldiran, 1514
Safavids defeated by Ottomans
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A. Politics and War under the Safavid Shahs
Tahmasp I Becomes shah Abbas I (1587-1629) Height of Ottoman Empire
Persians as bureaucratsB. State and ReligionAdopt Persian after Chaldiran
Also Persian court traditionsShi'ism modified
Spreads to entire empireC. Elite Affluence and Artistic SplendorAbbas I supports international trade, Islamic culture
Building projects Mosques in Isfahan
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D. Society and Gender Roles: Ottoman and Safavid Comparisons
Commonalities Warrior aristocracies Move to rural estates after conquest
Threat to central power Imperial workshops
Artisans patronized International trade encouraged
Women lose freedom Subordinate to fathers, husbands
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E. The Rapid Demise of the Safavid Empire
Abbas I
Removes heirs
Weak grandson inherits
Decline begins
Internecine conflict
Religious power of mullas weakens dynastic control
Outside threats from Afghani Kurds
1772, Isfahan taken by Afghanis
Nadir Khan Afshar supports exiled shah and unites
Declares self Shah, 1736
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The Mughal Empire
Zahir al-Din Muhammad (Babur the Tiger), Chagatai Turk, invades northern India for plunder, 1523Gunpowder technology gives Babur advantageFounds Mughal (Persian for Mongol) dynasty Expands through most of Indian subcontinent
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Akbar (r. 1556-1605)
Grandson of BaburWins fear and respect after throwing Adham Khan, leader of the army, out the window twiceSecond time just to make sure he was deadCreated centralized government
Destroyed Hindu kingdom of VijayanagarReligiously tolerant, promoted “Divine Faith”Syncretic form of Islam and Hinduism
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Aurangzeb (r. 1659-1707)
Expands Mughal empire into southern IndiaHostile to HinduismDemolished Hindu temples, replaced with mosquesTax on Hindus to encourage conversion
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III. The Mughals and the Apex of Muslim Civilization in India
Babur Driven from Afghanistan Invades India, 1526 Turkic Panipat, 1526 Defeats Muslim Lodi dynasty
Khanua, 1527 Defeats Hindu confederation1530, death
Succeeded by Humayn Flees to Persia Mughal rule restored by Humayn by 1556
The Growth of the Mughal Empire from Akbar to Aurangzeb
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A. Akbar and the Basis for a Lasting Empire
Humayn's 13-year-old son
Reconciliation with Hindus
New religion, Din-i-Ilahi
Blend of Islam and Hinduism
Toleration
B. Social Reform and Social Change
Women
Position improved
Widows encouraged to remarry
Child marriages discouraged
S
ati
prohibited
Seclusion undermined by women's market days
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C. Mughal Splendor and Early European Contacts
Death of Akbar Reforms don't survive Empire strong Cotton textiles to Europe
Especially among laboring and middle classes D. Artistic Achievement in the Mughal Era Jahangir and Shah Jahan, 17th century
Continue toleration Less energetic
Support arts Taj Mahal
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E. Court Politics and the Position of Elite and
Ordinary Women Nur Jahan Wife of Jahangir Head of powerful faction Mumtaz Mahal Wife of Shah Jahan Also powerful
Ordinary women Position declines
Sati spreads among upper classes Other of Akbar's reforms die out
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F. The Beginnings of Imperial Decline
Aurangzeb Succeeds Shah Jahan ProgramsRule all IndiaCleanse Islam of Hindu taint
1707, controls most of IndiaExpensive, distracting Other developments disregarded
RevoltAutonomy of local leaders Hindus exluded from high office
Non-Muslims taxed Marattas and Sikhs challenge rule
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Common Elements of Ottoman, Safavid and Mughal Empires
Empires based on military conquest (“gunpowder empires”)Prestige of dynasty dependent on piety and military prowess of the rulerClose relations with Sufism, ghazi traditionSteppe Turkish traditions
Issuance of unilateral decrees Intra-family conflicts over power
1595 Sultan massacres 19 brothers (some infants), 15 expectant women (strangulation with silk)
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Women and Politics
Women officially banned from political activityBut tradition of revering mothers, 1st wives from Chinggis KhanSüleyman the Magnificent defers to concubine Hürrem SultanaOriginally Roxelana, Ukrainian woman
Convinces husband to murder eldest son in favor of her own child
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Agriculture and Trade
Columbian Exchange crops effect less dramatic change in Muslim empiresCoffee, tobacco importantInitial opposition from conservative circles, fearing lax morality of coffee housesPopulation growth also reflects territorial additions and losses
Trade with English East India Company, French East India Company, and Dutch East India Company(VOC)
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Population Growth
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Religious Diversity
Ottoman Empire: Christians, JewsSafavid Empire: Zoroastrians, Jews, ChristiansMughal Empire: Hindus, Jains, Zoroastrians, Christians, SikhsMughal Akbar most tolerant
Received Jesuits politely, but resented Christian exclusivityEnthusiastic about syncretic Sikhism, self-serving “Divine Faith”
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Status of Religious Minorities
Non-Muslim protected people: dhimmiPayment of special tax: jizyaFreedom of worship, property, legal affairsOttoman communities: millet system of self-administration
Mughal rule: Muslims supreme, but work in tandem with HindusUnder Akbar, jizya abolished
Reaction under Aurangzeb
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Capital Cities
Istanbul cultural capital of Ottoman empire, massive monumental architectureRededication of Hagia Sofia church as Aya Sofiya mosqueIshafan major Persian cityAkbar builds magnificent Fatehpur Sikri
Chooses site without sufficient water supply, abandonedTaj Mahal example of Mughal architecture
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Deterioration of Imperial Leadership
Ottoman princes become lazy through luxurySelim the Sot (r. 1566-1574)Ibrahim the Crazy (r.1640-1648)
Attempts to isolate them compounds the problemReligious tensions between conservatives and liberals intensifyRole of women
Wahhabi movement in Arabia denounces Ottomans as unfit to ruleForce destruction of observatory, printing pressSafavid Shiites persecute Sunnis, non-Muslims and even Sufis
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Economic and Military Decline
Foreign trade controlled by EuropeansMilitary, administrative network expensive to maintainJanissaries mutiny when paid with debased coinage, 1589, other revolts followUnproductive wars
European military technology advances faster than Ottomans can purchase it
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Cultural Conservatism
Europeans actively studying Islamic cultures for purposes of trade, missionary activitiesIslamic empires less interested in outside worldSwiftly fell behind in technological developmente.g. Jews from Spain establish 1st printing press in Anatolia in late 15
th centuryBut printing of books in Turkish and Arabic forbidden until 1729Handwritten books preferred, but weak levels of dissemination
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THE END