中国的性别比例制 Qi Wang Associate Professor Department of Design and Communication University of Southern Denmark qiwangsitkomsdudk Main points A sketch of the Chinese ID: 555807
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Slide1
Gender quotas in China 中国的性别比例制
Qi WangAssociate Professor Department of Design and Communication University of Southern Denmarkqi.wang@sitkom.sdu.dkSlide2
Main pointsA sketch of the Chinese gender quota system
How gender quotas work in China: three challengesThe ambiguous nature of the gender quotas themselvesThe (still) lack of electoral system based on one man one voteThe lack of quantitative “jump” in the proportion of women in politics as a proof that gender quotas have actually worked. Methodology: look into the trajectory of China’s political development since 1949 and spot the junction/disjunction between gender equality (gender quotas) and the overall political agenda for social and political development overtime. This junction/disjunction, I argue, is the key to understand the characteristics of gender quotas in China and the paradoxical results they have brought with. Slide3
quota type
International China1). Reserved seats
2). Party quotas
3). Legislative quotas
Party quotas
(
Krook
, 2007:15).
Having “
no electoral quotas for women
” (Sun, 2005:153).
Reserved
seats
(
http://www.quotaproject.org/) Slide4
Quota mandate in chinaThe party
The All-China Women’s Federation ACWFWoman-work
The state
Organizational workSlide5
The Chinese gender quota system: three pillars
The constitution as the overall framework, the electoral Law and the Women’s Law (The Law of the People’s Republic of China on the Protection of Women’s Rights and Interests) as the legal basis; The stipulation and provision clause issued by the relevant Party and government authorities as the guideline and goal;
Local-level plans, actions and methods as the concrete measures to implement the designated goals (Du, 2012a; Du, 2012b). Slide6
China as one of the earliest nations in the world to adopt gender
quotasWaves of feminist suffrage movements in the 1910s and 1920s; Stipulation of women’s equal political rights with men in provincial constitutions and the election of women to
provincial legislatures” (Edwards, 2008:1).
25% quota for women in the Communist-controlled
“red” areas in the 1920s, 1930s and
1940s (
Gu
, 2010; Du, 2012a
).
In
1946, women suffragists “won a guaranteed minimum 10 percent quota of seats for women” in the Nationalist
parliament (
Edwards, 2008:2).Since 1949 gender quotas have been applied through different sub-periods of the PRC, though with varied degree of enthusiasm, commitment and effects.Slide7
The chinese quota paradoxes
A rather weak and unstable causal relationship between the existence of gender quotas and the proportion of women in politics.A time lag between the momentum of women’s representation in China and the development of the international gender equality regime represented by the UN and various gender-related UN treaties.
T
he zigzag trajectory of gender
equality and women’s
representation runs
counter to the core of
Western theories
about equal representation and democracy.Slide8
F
our
scenarios of
quota
adoption
“Women mobilize for quotas to increase women's representation”;
“
political elites recognize strategic advantages for supporting quotas”;
“
quotas are consistent with existing or emerging notions of equality and representation”;
and
“quotas are supported by international norms and spread through transnational sharing”
--(
Krook
, 2006:303; 2007:3-4).Slide9
China
political elites recognize strategic advantages for supporting quotasquotas are consistent with existing or emerging notions of equality and representation
Women mobilize for quotas to increase women's representation
quotas are supported by international norms and spread through transnational sharing
The socialist period
1949-1976
The reform period
1976-presentSlide10
Socialism and gender equality
women’s representation in tailwindA progressive leader with progressive views of womenA socialist social transformation project which requires women’s participation A centralized political system ensuring the command-ability of the party-state
Vacancies created by administrative order and by system reshuffle
Gender quotas?
Woman-cadres to lead women and take care women-related work
Class policy: one-third of the leadership positions goes to masses (workers and peasants)
T
op-down appointment and the center’s veto to local candidate lists Slide11
The legacy of the 1970s
The idea of “women hold a half of the sky”Quantitative increase of women in politics Numbers and figures:Class dimension: non-working class women suffered socially and politicallyThe problem of “newness” Part-time schedule and lower rank status“ Helicopter rise
” at the cost of normative recruitment procedures Slide12
Market economy and social inequality
women’s representation in headwindMarket economy, growing economic disparity/inequality, vulnerable and disadvantageous positions of women in societyCompetition mentality, “ability (素质suzhi) determinism”Erosion of “danwei” welfare and collective productionPolitical rejection of the Cultural RevolutionConservative gender ideologies: Neo-liberalism, New-Left, Neo Confucianism
Women’s representation suffers due to:
The adoption of the new cadre criteria
Decentralization of the cadre recruitment power
Introduction of competitive methods in political selection
Introduction of direct elections at the village and township levelSlide13
Bottom-up outside-insideThe All-China Women’s Federation as a watchdog of women’s rights (quasi official, quasi NGO)
Project/issue-based NGOsUniversity-based women’s studies academia China signed CEDAW in 1980China hosted the UN fourth Women Conference in Beijing in 1995I
nternational
ranking of female parliament
members
affects China’s image in the world
UN
Women
and ACWF joint
project
”
Promoting women's political participation in China” 2011-2014 Slide14
Some quota stipulations
The 2004 Electoral Law Among the “representatives of the National People's Congress and the Local People's Congresses (there) should be an appropriate number of women representatives, and the proportion of women representatives should be gradually increased" The 2007 “Decision on the number of delegates to the 11th People’s Congress and issues concerning the election of the delegates
” by the
fifth meeting session of the 10th People’s Congress
:
“the proportion of women delegates to be elected to the 11th People’s Congress should be no less than 22 %”
In
2010 revised
Organic Law of Village
Committees by the
Standing Committee of the 11th
NPC
“village committees must contain female members”
and “women should make one third of the villagers representative committees
or more ”Slide15
C
onclusion
T
he Chinese quota
system
does
not fall neatly into any of the
three categories
defined
internationally. It embraces
all the three
elements
The historical trajectory of quota adoption and endorsement in China involves all
the four scenarios of international gender quota adoption. The four factors played a different role with different combination in different historical and political period. China’s experience with gender quotas has shown both a fast and a slow track, and the entire itinerary down the road of gender quotas took a zigzag course, with one step forward (in Mao’s China) and one step backward (in post-Mao China
).The effectiveness of gender quotas in China correlates the commanding capacity of the party-state. Slide16
Sequence
Year (tenure) Percentage of women
1st
1954-1959
11.99%
2nd
1959-1964
12.2%
3rd
1964-1975
17.9%
4th
1975-1978
22.6%
5th
1978-1983
21.22%
6th
1983-1988
21.19%
7th
1988-1993
21.3%
8th
1993-1998
20.96%
9th
1998-2003
21.82%
10th
2003-2008
20.2%
11th
2008-2013
21.33%
12th
2013-2018
23.4%
Percentage of women delegates to
NPC Slide17
Party
CongressYear PolitburoPercentage
of
women
Central Committee
Percentage of women
8th
1956-1969
0:17
0%
4:97
4.1%
9th
1969-1973
2:19 (21)
10.5%
13:170
7.6%
10th
1973-1977
1:21
4.8%
20:195
10.3%
11th
1977-1982
0:23
0%
14:201
7.0%
12th
1982-1987
1:25
4%
11:210
5.2%
13th
1987-1992
0:17
0%
10:175
5.7%
14th
1992-1997
0:20
0%
12:189
6.4%
15th
1997-2002
0:22
0%8:1934.1%16th2002-20071:244.1%5:1982.5%17th2007-20121:254%13:2046.3%18th2012-20172:258%10:2054.8%
Percentage
of
women
in
Politburo
and the CCP Central
Committee