SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION, THE ENLIGHTENMENT, & ENLIGHTENED DESPOTISM - PowerPoint Presentation

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SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION, THE ENLIGHTENMENT, & ENLIGHTENED DESPOTISM

AP Euro

Unit 4.1Slide2
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I. The Scientific Revolution

Medieval view of the world

1. Primarily religious and theological

2. Political theory based on “divine right”

3. Society governed by Church views and practices

4. Superstition played a major role

5. Scientific thought in early 1500s still based on Medieval ideasSlide6

B. Causes of the Scientific Revolution

1. Medieval universities a. By

1300, philosophy had become an

accepted discipline

b. Medieval

philosophers developed a

degree

of independence from

theologians; sense

of free

inquiry

c. Leading

universities established new

professorships

of mathematics,

astronomy

, and

physics within

their

departments of

philosophy

.

d.

Major

scientific figures either

studied

or taught at universities

.Slide7

2. Renaissance stimulated science by rediscovering ancient mathematics -- Renaissance patronage was often was often scientific as well as artistic and humanistic 3. Navigational problems on sea voyages in the age of overseas expansion created a need for scientific advances

4. Scientific methodology developed

a. Bacon: empirical research

b. Descartes: deductive reasoningSlide8

C.

The Scientific Revolution became the major cause of the new world view that developed in the 16

th

and 17

th

centuries.

1. Secularism emerged and many educated people became openly hostile to religion

2. The revolution in learning became a major foundation in Western societySlide9

D. 16th

Century1.

Nicolaus

Copernicus

(1473-1543)

a.

On the Revolutions of

Heavenly Spheres

(1543)

b.

Heliocentric view:

Sun is center of the universe while the earth revolves around the sun -- Seemed to challenge the book of Genesis in the Bible that put forth the geocentric viewSlide10

Illustration published in

On the Revolutions of Heavenly Spheres, 1543Slide11

c. Religious reaction

-- Martin Luther and John Calvin condemned Copernicus’ view

-- Catholic church reaction initially not severe as it did not always interpret the Bible literally

--

By 1616, the Church proclaimed the Copernican view false and persecuted those who advanced his views (e.g. Galileo)Slide12

2.

Tycho Brahe (1546-1601)

Europe’s best astronomer in the late-16

th

century

Built best observatory in Europe and collected massive data on the cosmos

His data later

proved Copernican theory

-- Ironically, he did not accept the Copernican viewSlide13

Brahe’s quadrant was among the largest of his era and allowed him to make minute measurements of the cosmos. The king of Denmark gave him the island of

Hveen

to use for his observatory.Slide14

3.

Johann Kepler

(1571-1630)

a. First great Protestant scientist; assistant to Brahe

b. Mathematically proved

heliocentric universeSlide15

c.

3 laws of planetary motion:Orbits are elliptical

Planets do not move at uniform speeds in their orbits

The time it takes for a planet to orbit the sun is directly based on its distance from the sunSlide16

Kepler’s

Model of the Solar systemSlide17

Kepler’s “Edifice” of Astronomy, located on the frontispiece to his 1623

Rudolphine TablesSlide18

E. The 17th

CenturyGalileo Galilei (1564-1642)

a. Developed laws of motion using the experimental method

-- acceleration

-- inertia

b. Use of the

telescope

validated Copernicus’ heliocentric theorySlide19

Galileo’s use of the telescope demonstrated that the moon was not a smooth orb, as had been previously thought.Slide20

c. Galileo’s findings became controversial in the Catholic church

-- Inquisition of Pope Urban VIII forced Galileo to retract his heliocentric views

-- Galileo sentenced to house arrestSlide21

2.

Francis Bacon (1561-1626)

a. Formalized

empiricism

that had already been used by Brahe and Galileo

b.

Inductive method

for scientific experimentation

“Renounce notions and begin to form an acquaintance with things.”Slide22

Frontispiece to the “History of Royal Society of London.” Bacon is located on the front right.Slide23

3.

Rene Descartes (1596-1650)

a.

Discourse on Method

:

advocated

deductive method

-- “

cognito

ergo sum”: “I think, therefore I am”

b. Demonstrated relationship between geometry and algebra

c. Cartesian Dualism: divided all existence into the spiritual and material

-

-- The spiritual: logic

--

Material: empiricismSlide24

4. Modern Scientific Method:

Inductive method (Bacon) + Deductive method (Descartes)Slide25

5.

Isaac Newton (1642-1727)a. Integrated astronomy of Copernicus and Kepler with the physics of Galileo into an overarching theory on how the universe worked.Slide26

b. Principle of

universal gravitation:

--

Detailed in

Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy

(1687)

-- More popularly known as

Principia

-- Every body in the universe attracts every other body in the universe in a precise mathematical relationship

-- Since these natural laws are unchangeable and predictable, God’s active participation in the natural world is not needed to explain the forces of nature

-- Ideas became basis of

deism during the EnlightenmentSlide27

Memory Device for Scientific Revolution:

C

ops Copernicus

B

ring Brahe

K

ids Kepler

G

reat Galileo

B

ig Bacon

D

onuts Descartes

N

ow Newton Slide28

6. Anatomy and physiology

a. Scientists began challenging Greco- Roman medical views (especially those of Galen) b. Vesalius: The Structure of the Human body (1543) -- Renewed and modernized the study of human anatomySlide29

c. William Harvey

(1578-1657) --

On the Circulation of Blood

(1628): explained how blood was pumped by the heart and circulated throughout the bodySlide30

-- “Father of microscopy”

-- First to see and write about micro- organisms in water and the circulation of blood corpuscles in capillaries d. Anton van Leeuwenhoek

(1632-1723)Slide31

7. Royal scientific societies

Governments/monarchs encouraged scientific inquiry as a means to further the prestige of the state and remain at the cutting edge of technology

Scientists now could communicate with each other internationally

The

Royal Society

in England was perhaps the most successful and prestigious; founded in 1660

Other royal societies were created in Naples, France, Prussia (by Frederick I) and Russia (by Peter the Great).

Slide32

8.

Consequences of the Scientific Revolution

a. Led to the Enlightenment

b. Improvements in exploration (e.g.

John Harrison’s chronometer

gave mariners the ability to easily determine longitude)

Harrison's "Sea Watch" No.1 (H4), with winding crankSlide33

c. Experimentation helped accelerate the Agricultural Revolution

d. Improvements in medical knowledge later led to medical advances (18

th

and 19

th

centuries)

e. Contributed to the end of witch hunts

f. Science and religion were not in acute conflict until the 18

th

and 19th centurySlide34

The

Enlightenment (reached maturation by 1750)

Secular world view emerged for the first time

Belief that

natural science

and

reason

could explain all aspects of life

Belief in man’s intellect apart from God

Faith in reason, not revelationSlide35

4.

Deism: religious arm of the

Enlightenment

a. Existence of God was a rational explanation of the universe and its form

b. Universe ran much like a clock

c. Universe governed by “natural law,” not by a personal god

d. Deism grew out of Newton’s theories regarding natural law

5. Baruch Spinoza (1632-1677): Philosopher who created a world view in which he equated God and

n

atureSlide36

B. Belief that the scientific method could explain the laws of society

-- Progress in society was possible through following natural laws Slide37

C.

John Locke (1632-1704): greatest of the Enlightenment thinkers

1.

Two Treatises on Civil Government,

(1690)

a. Philosophical defense for the “Glorious Revolution” in England

b.

State of nature:

humans were basically good but lack protection

-- Contrasts Hobbes’ viewSlide38

c. Governments provide rule of law but only through consent

of the governed

d. Purpose of government is to protect the

natural rights

of the people:

life, liberty

and property

-- Social contract: people agree to obey the government in return for protection of natural rights e. Right to rebellion: people have a right to abolish a government that doesn’t protect natural rightsSlide39

2.

Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690)

a. One of the great works of the Enlightenment, along with

Principia

b. Stressed importance of environment on human development

c.

tabula rasa: the human mind was born as a blank slate and registered input from the senses passively Slide40

d. Saw all human knowledge as the result of sensory experiences without any preconceived notions

-- Contrasted Descartes’ view that people are born with certain basic ideas e. For progress to occur in society, education was critical in determining human development. f. Undermined

the Christian view that

humankind

was essentially

sinfulSlide41

D. Ideal of toleration was popularized by scholars who made Enlightenment ideas accessible to the public

1. Bernard de Fontenelle (1757-1757) a. Made highly complicated scientific ideas accessible to a broad

audience

b. Stressed

the idea of

progress

c. Skeptical

of absolute truth and

questioned

claims of organized

religionSlide42

2. Pierre Bayle (1647-1706): Critical and Historical Dictionary, 1697a. Advocated complete toleration of ideas

A person should be free to worship any religion, or none at

all

Argued that religion and morality were not necessarily linked

b. He

was a skeptic: believed nothing could be known beyond all doubt

Similar to Montaigne’s earlier views

c. His

major criticism was of

Christianity’s attempt

to impose orthodoxy. Slide43

E. The

PhilosophesSought fundamental reform in society

a.

Popularizers

of the Enlightenment

b.

Believed in p

rogress in society through discovering the natural laws

governing nature and human existence

c. Radically optimistic about how people should live and govern themselvesSlide44

2.

Voltaire (1694-1778)

Perhaps most influential of all the Enlightenment philosophers

Deist who challenged traditional Catholic theology

Inspired movement for change

Hated bigotry and injustice and sought religious toleration

Ecrasez l’infame (“Crush the infamous thing”)Slide45

d. Believed in Enlightened despotism believing people were incapable of ruling themselves

-- Ideas similar to Hobbes -- Influenced Frederick the Great, Catherine the great, Joseph II and Napoleon

-- Believed in equality before the law but not in equality of the classesSlide46

3.

Baron de Montesqueiu (1689-1755) a. Nobleman who hated absolutism of Louis XIV b.

Spirit of the Law

s

(1748): called for

separation of powers

in gov’t into three branches

-- Principles of

checks and balances

c. Significant impact on the U.S. Constitution and the French Revolution in the 1780sSlide47

4.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-78) a.  Social Contract (1762)

--

Believed too much emphasis on property, and not enough consideration of people, was a root cause of social injustice

--

The

general will

, a consensus of the majority, should control the nation

Slide48

b. Considered part of the Enlightenment but was also a founder of the Romantic movement

c. State of nature: man was a “noble savage” but was corrupted by the materialism of civilization d.

Emile

(1762)

-- Believed in progressive education; learning by doing; and self-expressionSlide49

5.

Denis Diderot (1713-1784) Encyclopedia a. Perhaps greatest and most representative work of the

philosophes

b. Vast compendium of political and social critiques

c. Popularized views of the

philosophes

d. Emphasized science and reason; criticized religion, intolerance, injustice, and tyranny

e.

Encyclopedia was banned in France and placed on the Index of Forbidden Books by the pope Slide50

6. Marquis de Beccaria

: On Crimes and Punishment (1764) a. Sought to humanize criminal law based on Enlightenment concepts of reason and equality before the law

b. Opposed death penalty

c. Opposed torture to extract confessions

d. His ideas influenced Enlightened Despots:

-- Frederick the Great banned torture

-- Catherine the Great restricted it

-- Joseph II banned torture and the death penaltySlide51

F.  Economic Theory

1.  Francois Quesnay (1694-1774) a. Leader of the

physiocrats

in France who opposed mercantilism

b. Sought to reform the existing agrarian system by instituting

laissez faire

in agriculture

c. Believed gov’t and nobility had too much control over land, thus stifling production

Slide52

2.   

Adam Smith (1727-1790): Wealth of Nations

(1776)

a. Considered the “bible” of capitalism

b. Refined and expanded ideas of the

physiocrats

c. Believed the economy is governed by natural laws of supply and demandSlide53

G. Women in the Enlightenment

1. Women played a major role in the salon movement

a. Brightest minds of the era assembled to discuss major issues

b. Some women took part in the discussions

-- Madame de Geoffrin

--

Madame de Staël

--

Louise de WarensSlide54

c. Geoffrin played a major role in patronizing Diderot’s

Encyclopedia d. Madame de Staël later brought German romantic ideas into France in the early 1800s

Slide55

2.  The

philosophes favored increased rights and education for women -- Condorcet was the only figure who advocated suffrage for women

  3.

Mary Wollstonecraft

(1759-1797) in England promoted political and educational equality for womenSlide56

H. Later Enlightenment (late 18

th century) 1. After 1750 became more skeptical (Hume and d’Holbach even promoted atheism)

2.

Paul d’Holbach

(1723-1789)

a.

Argued humans were essentially like machines, completely determined by outside forces (determinism)

b. His staunch atheism, determinism and attacks on Christianity undermined the EnlightenmentSlide57

3.

David Hume (1711-1776) a. Argued against faith in both natural law and religion

-- Argued desire, not reason, governed human behavior

b. As

a skeptic, Hume claimed that

human

ideas were merely the result of

sensory experiences

c. Undermined the Enlightenment’s emphasis

on reasonSlide58

4. Nicolas de Condorcet (1743-1794): Progress of the Human Mind

a. His

utopian ideas also undermined the

legitimacy

of Enlightenment ideas.

b. Identified

9 stages of human progress

that

had already occurred and

predicted

the 10th stage would bring perfection. Slide59

5.

Rousseau: criticized rationalism and civilization as destroying the individual 6. Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)

a. Greatest German philosopher of the Enlightenment

b. Separated science and morality into separate branches of knowledge

c. Argued science could describe nature but could not provide a guide for morality.Slide60

d. “Categorical imperative” was an intuitive instinct, placed by God in the human conscience.

-- Yet, both ethical sense and aesthetic appreciation in human beings were beyond knowledge of science. -- Reason is a function of the mind and has no content in and of itself.Slide61

I. Classical Liberalism

1. Political outgrowth of the Enlightenment a. Liberty of the individual and equality before the law but NOT democracy b. Natural rights philosophy of Locke played a role in the American and French Revolutions

c. Impact of Locke and Montesquieu was clearly visible in the U.S. Constitution (e.g. separation of powers) and the

Declaration of the Rights of Man

during the French Revolution Slide62

d. Rousseau’s view of the “general will” influenced the French Revolution after 1791

2. Belief in laissez faire capitalism (Smith) a. Gov’t should not interfere in the economy b. Opposite of mercantilism

3. Belief in progress (through reason and education), human dignity and human happiness

4. Religious toleration

5. Freedom of speech and the press

6. No cruel and unusual punishment

7. Equal treatment before the lawSlide63

J. New Christian groups opposed the Enlightenment

1.

The secular and deist views of the Enlightenment caused a reaction among some Christian leaders who believed Christian spirituality was on the decline

2.

German pietism:

argued for spiritual conversion and religious experience

3.

Methodism:

sought spiritual regeneration and a moral life that would demonstrate one has been “born- again”

--

John Wesley

(1703-91): founder

4.

Jansenism

in France argued against an impersonal godSlide64

Emergence of a secular world view

Enlightened despotism in Russia, Prussia, Austria, and France (under Napoleon)American and French Revolutions influenced by classical liberalismEducation reform in various countries

Growth of

laissez faire

capitalism in the 19

th

century during the early industrial revolution in England and 19

th

century America

K. Impact of Enlightenment on SocietySlide65

III.

Enlightened Despotism     A. Philosophes

inspired and supported the reforms of the Enlightened Despots

        1. Believed absolute rulers should promote the good of the people

          2. Believed (like Hobbes) that people were not capable of ruling themselves

     B. Reforms were modest

1. Religious toleration

2. Streamlined legal codes

3. Increased access to education

4. Reduction or elimination of torture and the death penaltySlide66

B.

Frederick the Great

(Frederick II, 1740-86)

      1. Background

a. Among the greatest German rulers

b. Son of Frederick William I

c. Profoundly influenced by the Enlightenment

He considered French learning to be superior

Patronized Voltaire; invited him to live in his court in Berlin

Musician and poetSlide67

2. Wars of Frederick the Great

a. The first 23 years of his reign were dominated by warfare

b.

War of Austrian Succession

(1740-48)

-- Cause: Prussia invaded Austria and occupied

Silesia

-- Violated the

Pragmatic Sanction

       -- Frederick defeated

Maria Theresa

c. Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle

-- Prussia gained Silesia (and doubled Prussia’s population in the process)

-- Prussia recognized as the most powerful of all the German states and one of Europe’s “Great Powers”Slide68
Slide69

c.

Seven Years’ War

(1756-1763)

Cause: Maria Theresa sought to regain Silesia and gained Russia and France as allies

Goal of Austria, Russia, and France was to conquer Prussia and divide its territories among the winners

Maria Theresa and her family,

1754Slide70

“

Diplomatic Revolution of 1756”France and Austria, traditional enemies, were now allies

Britain, a traditional ally of Russia, supported Prussia with money

Slide71

Bloodiest war of 18th century and bloodiest since the 30 Years’ War

Also included England and France’s struggle for North AmericaPrussia was outnumbered by its enemies 15 to 1Prussia suffered 180,000 dead and severe disruptions to its society

Berlin was twice captured and partially destroyed by Russian troops

Prussia was on the verge of a catastrophic defeatSlide72

Tsar Peter III (an admirer of Frederick) pulled Russia out of the war

This saved Prussia from almost certain defeatPeter was assassinated and replaced by Catherine II as a resultSlide73

Treaty of Paris

(1763)Most important treaty of the 18th century and most important since Treaty of Westphalia (1648)

Prussia permanently retained Silesia

France lost all of its North American colonies to Great Britain

Britain gained territory in IndiaSlide74

The “2

nd

Hundred Years War”

(1689-1815)

France vs. England

Wars of Louis XIV

War of the League of Augsburg (1688-1697)

War of Spanish Succession (1702-1713)

War of Austrian Succession (1740-1748)

Seven Years’ War (1756-1763)

American Revolution (1775-1783)

War of the First Coalition (1792-1797)Napoleonic Wars (1799-1815)Slide75

3. Enlightened reforms of Frederick the Great

a. Frederick claimed that he saw himself as the

“first servant of the state”

The destruction of war encouraged Frederick to help improve society

Yet, Frederick was an absolute ruler

His reforms were mostly intended to increase the power of the state

The peasantry did not really benefit from his reformsSlide76

b. Allowed religious toleration (although less so for Jews)

Jews did not receive full rights until eight years after Frederick’s death

c. Promoted education in schools and universities

Gains in primary education were modest

Codified and streamlined laws

Freed serfs on Crown lands

Peasants were needed for the army

Serfdom remained on noble lands although Frederick ordered an end to physical punishmentsSlide77

f. Improved the state bureaucracy by requiring exams for civil servants

g. Reduced censorship

h. Abolished capital punishment (but not in the army)

i

. Encouraged immigration

j. Encouraged industrial and agricultural growthSlide78

4. Yet, Prussia’s social structure remained stratified

a. Serfdom remained on non-crown lands

b. The

Junkers

were the backbone of the Prussian military and the state

The state did not recognize marriages between nobles and commoners.

Nobles were not allowed to sell their lands to non-nobles.

c. Middle class had trouble moving upSlide79

D. “

Catherine the Great” (Catherine II)

of Russia (r. 1762-1798)

      1. Background

a. One of the greatest rulers in European history

Perhaps the least enlightened of the Enlightened Despots

b. Conspired against her husband Peter III to gain the throne.

c. Lover of French culture and saw herself as a child of the Enlightenment

Diderot lived in her court briefly Slide80

2.

Pugachev

Rebellion

(1773)

a. Eugene

Pugachev

, a Cossack soldier, led a huge serf uprising

Demanded an end to serfdom, taxes, and military conscription

Landlords and officials were murdered all over southwestern Russia

Pugachev

was eventually captured and executed Slide81

b. Catherine needed support of the nobility and gave them absolute control over serfs

Serfdom spread to new areas (e.g. Ukraine)

1785, Catherine freed nobles from taxes and state service

Confiscated Orthodox Church lands and gave them to her favorite officials

Nobles reached their height while serfs were worse off Slide82

3.

Catherine imported Western culture into Russia a. Architects, artists, musicians and

writers

were invited to Russia

b. Culturally

, Russia gained the respect of

western

European countries

4. Educational reforms

a. Supported the first private printing presses

-- Number of books published annually in Russia increased dramatically b. A school for noble girls foundedSlide83

5.

Restricted the practice of torture 6

. Allowed limited religious toleration

a. Stopped persecution of Old Believers

b. Jews granted civil equality

7. Strengthened local gov’t led by elective councils of nobles

-- Yet, the crown not obligated to accept recommendations from councils

8. Shortcomings of Catherine’s reforms a. Only the state and nobility benefited b. Serfdom became even more severeSlide84

9. Territorial growth under Catherine        a. Annexed Polish territory through three Partitions of Poland: 1772, 1793, 1795

      -- Poland’s Diet was weak due to the

Liberum veto

         b. Gained Ottoman land in the Crimea controlled by Tartars.

c. Began conquest of the Caucasus

d. Expansion provided new lands with which to give Russian noblesSlide85

Partitions of Poland: 1772-1795Slide86

D

. 

Austria

1

. 

Maria

Theresa

(r. 1740-1780) a. Inherited the throne from Charles VIPragmatic Sanction of 1713: issued by Leopold She was archduchess of Austria and Queen of Hungary and BohemiaSought to improve the condition of her people through absolute rule

Conservative and cautious

Slide87

b.  War of Austrian SuccessionAs a female, she could not assume the title of Holy Roman Emperor

This cast doubts on her legitimacy as ruler of the Habsburg empire

Though she lost Silesia, she saved her leadership of the empire

Gained support of the Hungarian nobility in defeating Bohemian revolt and preserving the empireSlide88

c.  Centralized control of the Habsburg EmpireLimited the power of the nobles

Reduced serfdom

Increased size of the empire’s army

Improved the tax system

Reduced conflicts between various provinces in the empire

Reduced torture in legal proceedingsSlide89

d.  Brought the Catholic Church under state controlReduced papal influence in Austria

Taxed the Catholic church

Believed the Church and nobility were the foundations of the state

e. Promoted economic development

Hoped giving serfs freedom would make them more productive

Abolished guilds

Abolished internal tariffs

Encouraged immigration

Improved transportation

Supported private enterpriseSlide90

f.  Maria Theresa is not considered an Enlightened Despot despite numerous reforms

She was not a fan of the Enlightenment

Did not go as far as others in allowing religious toleration (although she allowed some tolerance for Protestants)Slide91

2.

Joseph II

(r.1765-1790)

a. Co-regent with Maria Theresa until 1780

b. Perhaps the greatest of the Enlightened Despots but also the least effective

c. Major reforms

Abolished serfdom and feudal dues

Freedom of religion and civic rights to Protestants and Jews

Reduced influence of the Catholic churchSlide92

Freedom of the press (to some degree)

Reformed the judicial system and sought to make it equal for all citizens

Abolished torture and death penalty

Expanded state schools

Established hospitals, insane asylums, poor houses and orphanagesSlide93

d. The Empire declined under Joseph’s reign

Austria was defeated several times by the Ottoman Empire

The Austrian Netherlands were in revolt

Russia was threatening Austria’s interests in eastern Europe and Balkans

Leopold II reversed many reforms in order to maintain effective control of the empire