Chapter 18 Part 1 The Scientific Revolution and - PowerPoint Presentation

Slide1

Chapter 18Part 1

The Scientific Revolution and

The Enlightenment

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The Medieval View of the World

Mainly religious and theological

Political theory was based on “Divine Right of Kings”

Society governed by Church views, traditions, practices

Superstition played a major role in life

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Scientific thought in the early 16th century

Still based on medieval ideas

Aristotle’s ideas gave us our views about the universe (seemed to conform with Church views)

The

Geocentric

view: the earth was the center of a static, motionless universe

Science was a branch of theology

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Causes of the Scientific Revolution

Impact of Medieval Universities

:

By 1300 philosophy had become an accepted discipline (as well as law, medicine and theology)

Medieval philosophers had developed a degree of independence from theologians AND a sense of free-inquiry

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Medieval Universities(causes)

Leading universities established new professorships of mathematics, astronomy, and physics (natural philosophy) within their departments of philosophy

Major scientific figures either studied or taught at universities

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The Renaissance(causes)

Stimulated science by rediscovering ancient mathematics

Renaissance patronage was often scientific as well as artistic and humanistic

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Navigational Problems(causes)

Problems on sea voyages during the Age of Discovery created a need for scientific advances

New instruments: telescope, barometer, thermometer, pendulum clock, microscope, air pump

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Gresham College in England(causes)

Scientists worked closely with top officials in the Royal Navy and leading merchants and shipbuilders

Became the main center of scientific activity during the first ½ of the 17

th

Century

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The New World View Essay

Discuss how the New World View, which was developed during the Scientific Revolution of the late 16

th

and early 17

th

centuries was applied to society during the Enlightenment of the late 17

th

and early 18

th

centuries.

Be certain to address the areas of religious philosophy, economics, science and medicine, government and justice, and beliefs about the nature of man and progress.

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In the 16th Century

Copernicus (1473-1543) wrote:

On the Revolutions of Heavenly Spheres

Feared a backlash by the scientific community and by the Church

So he postponed publication of his book AND dedicated the book to Pope Paul III (Reform Pope)

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Copernicus

Did NOT intend his theories to challenge Church Doctrine

Copernicus gave us a

New World View

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The Heliocentric View

Argued that the earth revolved around the sun and that the sun was the center of the universe

Stated that the stars did not move although they appeared to due to the result of the earth’s rotation

Problem: retrograde motion of planets relative to the earth was explained (falsely) by the premise of epicycles

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Copernican Theory

Challenged Ptolemy’s (2

nd

century A.D.) view of the universe

And seemed to challenge the

Bible’s

Book of Genesis (also a geocentric view)

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Religious Reaction

Martin

Luther

and John

Calvin

: condemned Copernicus’ Theory: cited Biblical passages that supported the Medieval point of view

Initial

Catholic

Reaction: not so emphatic: the Catholic Church did not always interpret the Bible as literally as the Protestants did

BUT by 1616: the Catholic Church proclaimed the Copernican theory as false and persecuted those holding Copernican views (like Galileo)

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Tycho Brahe ( 1546-1601)

Europe’s leading astronomer in the 16

th

Century

Built the best observatory in Europe (Denmark) and collected massive data on his observations of the universe

Data will be used for centuries

LATER Brahe’s data will be used to support Copernican theory…but Brahe, himself, did not

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Tycho Brahe

Unlike Copernicus, Brahe believed that while the planets all revolved around the sun, the sun revolved around the earth

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Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)

Assistant to Brahe

First great Protestant scientist

Mathematically proved Copernican theory

Developed the three laws of planetary motion

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Kepler’s 3 Laws of Planetary Motion

Orbits of Planets are elliptical

Planets do not move at uniform speed while in their orbits

The time it takes for a planet to orbit the sun is directly based on its distance from the sun (the closer a planet is to the sun…the faster its orbit)

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Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)

Developed the

3 Laws of Motion

using the experimental method (with controlled experiments)

Acceleration experiment:

1. Gravity is a universal force that produced uniform acceleration

2. All falling objects descend with equal velocity regardless of their weight

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Galileo’s Laws of Motion

3. Law of Inertia: an object that is in motion remains in motion until it is stopped by some external force

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Galileo

Validated Copernicus’ heliocentric view with the aid of a telescope

Galileo was the first to use the telescope as a scientific instrument

He built his own

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Galileo

Demonstrated that the moon and other planets were not perfectly round like a crystal sphere (the Medieval view)

Discovered the four moons of Jupiter which refuted the medieval (Aristotle’s) belief that Jupiter was embedded in an impenetrable crystal sphere

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Changing Religious Views

Galileo’s findings became more controversial in Catholic Countries

At the same time, Protestants countries in Northern Europe became more accepting of Galileo’s challenges to Medieval views

Maybe because they had already made inroads into challenging long-accepted beliefs and practices

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The Church v Galileo

1616 The Catholic Church declared Copernican theory to be heretical

1632 Galileo published

Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems

in which he wrote about Copernican theory in mathematical terms

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The Inquisition!

In 1633 the Inquisition of Pope Urban VII forced Galileo to retract his support of the Copernican theory

Galileo remained under house arrest for the rest of his life

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Francis Bacon (1561-1625)

Formalized the empirical method (that had already been used by Brahe and Galileo)

The

Inductive Method

(empirical) for scientific experimentation:

Begin with an observation

Form a hypothesis

Conduct an experiment

Organize data

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Rene Descartes (1596-1650)

Wrote

Discourse on Method

Advocated the use of deductive reasoning (logic)

This, combined with Bacon’s Inductive Method (empirical method) became the

Scientific Method

used today

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Rene Descartes

Used deductive reasoning to prove his existence

“cognito ergo sum” means “I think; therefore, I am.”

His proof depended on logic alone

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Deductive Reasoning

Begin with clear and incontrovertible facts

Subdivide each problem into as many parts as necessary, using a step-by-step logical sequence

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Descartes

Developed analytical geometry

Demonstrated the relationship between algebra and geometry

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Descartes’ Cartesian Dualism

Divided all existence into the spiritual and the material

The Spiritual can only be examined by deductive reasoning (logic)

The material can be examined by the experimental (inductive) method

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The Modern Scientific Method

Bacon’s Inductive Method

and

Descartes’ Deductive Method

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Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727)

Used the astronomy of Copernicus and Kepler with the physics of Galileo to create a theory explaining the order and design of the universe

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Newton’s Principles of Universal Gravitation

Were detailed in his 1687 book:

Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy

Popularly known as

Principia

Perhaps the greatest book on science ever written

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Principle of Universal Gravitation

Natural laws

of motion (gravitation) are evident in the movement of heavenly bodies and earthly objects

Newton developed a set of mathematical principles to explain motion

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Principle of Universal Gravitation

Every body in the universe attracts every other body in the universe in a precise mathematical relationship

Since these

natural laws

are unchangeable and predictable, God’s active participation is not needed to explain the forces of nature

Above view is the foundation for Deism (rational religion)

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Newton

Also invented Calculus

Although Leibniz also made the claim

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Anatomy and Physiology

Scientists began to challenge Greco-Roman medical views (especially those of

Galen

2

nd

Century A.D)

Vesalius

The Structure of the Human Body

(1543) renewed and modernized the study of anatomy

Harvey

On

the Movement

of the Heart and Blood

(1628) explained how blood was pumped by the heart and circulated throughout the body

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Anatomy and Physiology

Van Leeuwenhoek:

Father of Microscopy

Developed powerful microscopes

Was the first to see and write about bacteria, yeast, other living organisms in a drop of water and the circulation of blood corpuscles in capillaries

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Royal Scientific Societies

Governments and Monarchs encouraged scientific inquiry as a means to further the prestige of the state and remain at the cutting edge of technology

Scientific Societies gave scientists opportunities to communicate with each other internationally, helping to forge an international scientific community

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The Royal Society (England)

The most successful and prestigious

Founded 1660

Other Royal Societies created in : Naples, France, Prussia, Russia

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Impact of the Scientific Revolution

Led to the Enlightenment of the 18

th

Century

Improvements in exploration (chronometer gave mariners the ability to determine Longitude)

Helped to lead to the Agricultural Revolution of the 18

th

Century

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Impact of the Scientific Revolution

Improvement of medical knowledge helped to improve the quality of life (later in the 19

th

and 20

th

centuries)

Science and religion will not be in acute conflict until 19

th

and

20

th

Centuries

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No conflict betweenScience and Religion (yet)

There was no attempt in the 17

th

and 18

th

centuries to secularize science

Most scientists believed that they were studying and analyzing God’s creation

Universal agreement among scientists that the origin of the universe WAS supernatural

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The DebateRegarding Religion:

To what extent did God continue to be involved in his creation?

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After the Catholic Counter-Reformation

The Catholic Church became more hostile to science and science declined in Italy…but NOT in France

Protestant countries became the leaders of the scientific

revolution…especially England