Instinct Theory DriveReduction Theory Arousal Theory Hierarchy of Motives Motivation Motivation is a need or desire that energizes behavior and directs it towards a goal Aron Ralston was motivated to cut his arm to free himself from a rock that pinned him down ID: 782405
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Slide1
Introduction to Motivation
Instinct
Theory
Drive-Reduction
Theory
Arousal
Theory
Hierarchy of
Motives
Slide2MotivationMotivation is a need or desire that
energizes
behavior and
directs it towards a goal.Aron Ralston was motivated to cut his arm to free himself from a rock that pinned him down.
Aron
Ralston
AP Photo/ Rocky Mountain News, Judy Walgren
Slide3Instincts & Evolutionary PsychologyInstincts are complex behaviors that have fixed action patterns throughout species
and unlearned (Tinbergen
, 1951).
Where the woman can build different kinds of houses
the bird builds only one kind of nest.
© Ariel Skelley/ Masterfile
Tony Brandenburg/ Bruce Coleman, Inc.
Slide4Drive-Reduction TheoryWhen the instinct theory of motivation failed it was replaced by drive-reduction theory. Physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need (Hull, 1951).
Slide5Drive Reduction
Food
Drive
Reduction
Organism
Physiological aim of drive reduction is
homeostasis
– maintenance of steady internal state, e.g., maintenance of steady body temperature.
Stomach Full
Empty Stomach
(Food Deprived)
Slide6Incentive Theory
Where our
needs (drives)
push,
incentives (positive or negative stimuli) pull us in reducing our drives.A food-deprived person who smells baking bread(incentive) feels strong hunger drive.
Incentives can also be negative, we may behave in a certain way in order to avoid an unpleasant outcome
You should see the connection between this theory and Behaviorist principles of learning (conditioning, Law of Effect, and the
Premack
Principle)
Slide7Cognitive TheoryMotivation results from individuals attempting to maintain order or balance and an understanding of the world.
Believes that individual behavior is influenced by the way people perceive themselves and their environment
.
People seek to maintain order and understanding.Students are motivated to engage in learning tasks to the extent that they expect to succeed and the degree to which they value the achievement of the task.
7
Slide8Optimum levels of Arousal
Human motivation aims not to eliminate arousal but to seek optimum levels of arousal
We each have our own sense of appropriate arousal and we act in ways to remain at a comfortable level.
Yerkes-Dodson Law
predicts that there is a relationship between the difficulty of a task, our level of arousal, and the eventual outcomeFor easy tasks=higher levels of arousalFor difficult tasks= moderate levels work best
Slide99
“The Zone”
Slide10Hierarchy of Motives
Abraham Maslow (1970) suggested some needs have priority over others. Physiological needs like breathing, thirst and hunger come before psychological needs like achievement, self-esteem and need for recognition.
(1908-1970)
Slide11Hierarchy of Needs
Physical
Needs
Psychological
Needs
Slide12Hunger
Physiology of hunger
Parts of the hypothalamus
Set Point theoryEating Disorders
Slide13HungerWhen are we hungry?
When do we eat?
When there is no food in our stomach.
When we are hungry.
How do we know when our stomach is empty?
Stomach growls. Also called hunger pangs.
Slide14The Physiology of HungerStomach contractions (pangs) send signals to the brain making us aware of our hunger.
Slide15Glucose: C6H12O
6
Glucose level in the blood is maintained. Insulin decreases glucose in blood making us feel hungry.
Glucose Molecule
Slide16Glucose & BrainLevels of glucose in the blood are monitored by receptors (neurons) in the stomach, liver, intestines, they send signals to the hypothalamus in the brain.
Rat Hypothalamus
Slide17Hypothalamic Centers
Lateral hypothalamus (LH)
brings on hunger (stimulation). Destroy it and the animal has no interest in eating. Reduction of blood glucose stimulates
orexin
in LH which leads to ravenous eating in rats.
Slide18Hypothalamic Centers
Ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH)
depresses
hunger
(
stimulation). Destroy it and the animal eats excessively.
Slide19Hypothalamus & Hormones
Hypothalamus monitors a number of hormones that
are related to hunger.
Hormone
Tissue
Response
Orexin
increase
Hypothalamus
Increases hunger
Ghrelin increase
Stomach
Increases hunger
Insulin increase
Pancreas
Increases hunger
Leptin
increase
Fat cells
Decreases hunger
PPY increase
Digestive tract
Decreases hunger
Slide20Set-Point TheoryManipulating lateral and ventromedial hypothalamus alters the body’s “weight thermostat.”
If weight is lost – food intake increases and energy expenditure decreases. If weight is gained – the opposite takes place.
Slide21The Psychology of HungerMemory plays an important role in hunger.
Due
to difficulties with retention, amnesia patients eat frequently, if given food (
Rozin et al., 1998).
On the other hand, Alzheimer’s patients may forget to eat.
Slide22Eating DisordersAnorexia Nervosa:
Characterized by a normal-weight person (usually adolescent women) losing weight continuously and yet feeling overweight.
Reprinted by permission of
The New England
Journal of Medicine,
207, (Oct 5, 1932), 613-617.Lisa O’Connor/ Zuma/ Corbis
Slide23Eating DisordersBulimia Nervosa:
A disorder characterized by episodes of overeating, usually of high-calorie foods, followed by vomiting, laxative use, fasting, or excessive exercise.
Slide24Obesity
http://www.cyberdiet.com
A disorder characterized by excessive overweight. Obesity increases risk and health issues like c
ardiovascular diseases, diabetes hypertension, arthritis, and back problems.
Slide25Summary
Slide26Motivation at Work
The healthy life, said Sigmund Freud, is filled by love and work.
-Motivation at work and school
Slide27Attitudes Towards Work
Job:
Necessary way to make money.
Career:
Opportunity to advance from one position to another.Calling: fulfilling a socially useful activity.
People have different attitudes towards work. Some take it as a:
Slide28Flow & Rewards
Flow is experience between no work and a lot of work. Flow marks immersion into one’s work.
People who “flow” in their work (artists, dancers, composers etc.) are driven less by
extrinsic rewards
(money, praise, promotion) and more by
intrinsic rewards.
Slide29Work and SatisfactionIn industrialized countries work and satisfaction go hand-in-hand.
Slide30Industrial-Organizational (I/O) PsychologyApplies psychological principles to workplace.
Personnel Psychology:
Principles of selecting and evaluating workers.
Organizational Psychology
:
Studies how work environments and management styles influence worker motivation, satisfaction, and productivity.
Slide31Harnessing Strengths
Identifying people’s strengths (analytical, disciplined, eager to learn etc.) and matching them to work is the first step toward workplace effectiveness.
Slide32Organizational Psychology: Motivating AchievementAchievement motivation is defined as desire for significant accomplishment.
Skinner devised a daily discipline schedule
which led him to become 20
th
century most
influential psychologist.Ken Heyman/ Woodfin Camp & Associates
Slide33Satisfaction & Engagement
Harter et al., (2002) observed that
employee engagement
meant that the worker knows:
What is expected of him.
Feels the need to work.Feels fulfilled at work.Gets opportunities to do the best.Thinks himself to be a part of something significant.Has opportunities to learn and develop.
Engaged workers are more productive
than non-engaged at different stores
of the same chain.
Capital-Journal/ David Eulitt/ AP/ Wide World Photos
Slide34AP InfoDrive-reduction theory (give an example)Which part of the hypothalamus does what?Know your hormones (where does the signal come from…before that…?)
Slide35More AP info…Maslow-hierarchy of needs Drive-reduction theory of motivationInstinct theoryLH starts feeding, VMH stops feedingFeel good-do good phenomenonIntrinsic vs extrinsic motivation,
remember the
overjustification
effect?
Slide36Introduction to Emotion
James Lange Theory
Cannon-Bard Theory
Schacter
-Singer Theory (2 factor)Autonomic Nervous System
Slide37Theories of EmotionEmotions are our body’s adaptive response.
Emotions
are a mix of 1) physiological activation, 2) expressive behaviors, and 3) conscious experience.
Slide38ControversyDoes physiological arousal precede or follow your emotional experience?
Does cognition (thinking)
precede
emotion (feeling)?
Slide39James-Lange Theory
William James and Carl Lange proposed an idea that was diametrically opposed to the common-sense view. James-Lange theory proposes that physiological activity precedes the emotional experience
.
(We react to the changes in our body that we feel)
Slide40Cannon-Bard Theory
Walter Cannon and Phillip Bard questioned James-Lange theory and proposed emotion-triggering stimulus and body's arousal take place simultaneously.
Slide41Two-Factor Theory
Stanley
Schachter
and Jerome Singer proposed yet another theory which suggested that our physiology and our cognitions create emotions. Emotions have two factors–physical arousal and cognitive label
.
Slide42Embodied EmotionWe know that emotions involve bodily response. Some of these response are easy to notice (butterflies in stomach when fear arises) but others are more difficult discern (neurons activated in the brain).
Slide43Emotions and Autonomic Nervous SystemDuring an emotional experience our autonomic nervous system mobilizes energy in the body and arouses us.
43
Slide44Arousal and Performance
(remember Yerkes-Dodson??)
Arousal in short spurts is adaptive. We perform better under moderate arousal, however optimal performance varies with task difficulty.
Slide45Physiological Similarities
Physiological responses are pretty much similar across the emotions of fear, anger, love and boredom.
Excitement and fear involve similar
physiological arousal.
This can be an issue when you study stress, which in our lives has physical consequences to psychological triggers.
Your body only has one response to stress and it involves activating your sympathetic nervous system. This is not always healthy
Slide46Cognition and EmotionWhat is the connection between how we
think
(cognition) and how we
feel (emotion)?Can we change our emotions by changing our thinking?
Slide47Cognition Can Define Emotion
Arousal response to one event spills over into our response to the next event.
Arousal from a soccer match can fuel anger, which can descend into rioting.
AP Photo/ Nati Harnik
Reuters/ Corbis
Slide48Two Routes to EmotionZajonc
and
LeDoux
(1984) emphasize some emotions are immediate without conscious appraisal. Lazarus, Schachter and Singer (1998) emphasize that appraisal also determines emotions.
Slide49Nonverbal Communication
Most of us are good at deciphering emotions thorough non-verbal communication. In a crowd of faces a single angry face will “pop out” faster than a single happy face (Fox et al. 2000).
Slide50Gender, Emotion, and Nonverbal Behavior
Women are much better at discerning nonverbal emotions then men. When shown sad, happy and scary film clips women expressed emotions more than men.
Slide51Culture and Emotional Expression
When culturally diverse people were shown basic facial expressions, they did pretty well at recognizing them (Ekman & Matsumoto, 1989).
Elkman & Matsumoto, Japanese and
Caucasian Facial Expression of Emotion
Slide52Emotions are AdaptiveDarwin speculated that our ancestors communicated with facial expression in the absence of language. Nonverbal facial expression led to their survival.
Charles Darwin (1809-1882)
Slide53Analyzing Emotion
Analysis of emotions is carried out on different levels.
Slide54Experienced Emotion
Fear
Anger
Adaptation-level phenomenon
Relative deprivation
Slide55Experienced Emotion
Izard (1977) has isolated 10 emotions. And most of
them are present in infancy, excluding contempt,
shame and guilt.
Nancy Brown/ The Image Bank
Tom McCarthy/ Rainbow
Slide56Dimensions of Emotion
People generally divide emotions into
two dimensions
Slide57Fear
Fear can torment us, rob us of sleep and
preoccupy our thinking. But fear can be adaptive – it makes us run away from danger, brings us
closer as groups, protects us from
injury and harm.
Slide58Learning Fear
We learn fear in two ways through
conditioning
and/or through
observation
.
Watson
Bandura
Slide59The Biology of Fear
Some fears are easier to learn than others. The amygdala in the brain associates emotions like fear with certain
situations and its proximity to the hippocampus allows for the easy encoding of these memories.
Slide60Causes of Anger
People generally get angry with friends and loved ones about misdeeds, especially if they are willful, unjustified, and avoidable.
People also get angry about foul odors, high temperatures, traffic jams, aches and pains.
Slide61Catharsis HypothesisVenting anger through action or fantasy achieves emotional release or “catharsis.”
Some believe that we are drawn to displays of violence (football,
etc
) because it is cathartic and allows us an outlet for aggression.
Expressing
anger breeds more anger, and through reinforcement, is habit forming.
Slide62Emotional Ups and Downs
Our positive moods rise to a maximum within 6-7 hours after waking up. Negative moods stay more or less the same over the day.
Slide63Feel-Good, Do-Good phenomenon
When we feel happy we are more willing to help others. This is a good example of the “spill over effect”
Slide64Happiness & Satisfaction
Subjective well-being (happiness + satisfaction) measured in 82 countries show Puerto Rico and Mexico (poorer countries) at the top of the list.
Slide65Happiness & Prior Experience
Adaptation-Level Phenomenon:
Like sensory adaptation to brightness, volume, and touch, people adapt to
new situations until that situation becomes the “norm”. Then people need a new experience. This constantly raises the level for what is considered new and exciting
In baseball, the Cardinals are used to being a successful team, and we are used to rooting for a winner. What would happen if they started having really bad seasons?
Slide66Slide67Happiness & Others’ Attainments
Happiness is not relative to our past but also to our comparisons with others.
Relative Deprivation is the perception that one is worse off relative to those with whom one compares oneself with.They realize that they have less of what they believe themselves to be entitled than those around them
.Can lead to social movements, deviance, rioting, civil wars, etc
Slide68AP Info…Know the theories of how we experience emotion. Which one involves a cognitive label?What role does conditioning play in our emotions? Schemas?Yerkes-Dodson-optimum level of arousal
Slide69More AP info…James-Lange (arousal leads to emotion)Cannon-Bard (simultaneous experience)Schacter-Singer (2 factor, cognitive label)Sternberg triangle theory of love (passion-commitment-intimacy)