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Introduction to Motivation Introduction to Motivation

Introduction to Motivation - PowerPoint Presentation

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Introduction to Motivation - PPT Presentation

Instinct Theory DriveReduction Theory Arousal Theory Hierarchy of Motives Motivation Motivation is a need or desire that energizes behavior and directs it towards a goal Aron Ralston was motivated to cut his arm to free himself from a rock that pinned him down ID: 782405

emotions theory work arousal theory emotions arousal work hunger emotion fear amp people hypothalamus physiological experience reduction drive stomach

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Slide1

Introduction to Motivation

Instinct

Theory

Drive-Reduction

Theory

Arousal

Theory

Hierarchy of

Motives

Slide2

MotivationMotivation is a need or desire that

energizes

behavior and

directs it towards a goal.Aron Ralston was motivated to cut his arm to free himself from a rock that pinned him down.

Aron

Ralston

AP Photo/ Rocky Mountain News, Judy Walgren

Slide3

Instincts & Evolutionary PsychologyInstincts are complex behaviors that have fixed action patterns throughout species

and unlearned (Tinbergen

, 1951).

Where the woman can build different kinds of houses

the bird builds only one kind of nest.

© Ariel Skelley/ Masterfile

Tony Brandenburg/ Bruce Coleman, Inc.

Slide4

Drive-Reduction TheoryWhen the instinct theory of motivation failed it was replaced by drive-reduction theory. Physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need (Hull, 1951).

Slide5

Drive Reduction

Food

Drive

Reduction

Organism

Physiological aim of drive reduction is

homeostasis

– maintenance of steady internal state, e.g., maintenance of steady body temperature.

Stomach Full

Empty Stomach

(Food Deprived)

Slide6

Incentive Theory

Where our

needs (drives)

push,

incentives (positive or negative stimuli) pull us in reducing our drives.A food-deprived person who smells baking bread(incentive) feels strong hunger drive.

Incentives can also be negative, we may behave in a certain way in order to avoid an unpleasant outcome

You should see the connection between this theory and Behaviorist principles of learning (conditioning, Law of Effect, and the

Premack

Principle)

Slide7

Cognitive TheoryMotivation results from individuals attempting to maintain order or balance and an understanding of the world.

Believes that individual behavior is influenced by the way people perceive themselves and their environment

.

People seek to maintain order and understanding.Students are motivated to engage in learning tasks to the extent that they expect to succeed and the degree to which they value the achievement of the task.

7

Slide8

Optimum levels of Arousal

Human motivation aims not to eliminate arousal but to seek optimum levels of arousal

We each have our own sense of appropriate arousal and we act in ways to remain at a comfortable level.

Yerkes-Dodson Law

predicts that there is a relationship between the difficulty of a task, our level of arousal, and the eventual outcomeFor easy tasks=higher levels of arousalFor difficult tasks= moderate levels work best

Slide9

9

“The Zone”

Slide10

Hierarchy of Motives

Abraham Maslow (1970) suggested some needs have priority over others. Physiological needs like breathing, thirst and hunger come before psychological needs like achievement, self-esteem and need for recognition.

(1908-1970)

Slide11

Hierarchy of Needs

Physical

Needs

Psychological

Needs

Slide12

Hunger

Physiology of hunger

Parts of the hypothalamus

Set Point theoryEating Disorders

Slide13

HungerWhen are we hungry?

When do we eat?

When there is no food in our stomach.

When we are hungry.

How do we know when our stomach is empty?

Stomach growls. Also called hunger pangs.

Slide14

The Physiology of HungerStomach contractions (pangs) send signals to the brain making us aware of our hunger.

Slide15

Glucose: C6H12O

6

Glucose level in the blood is maintained. Insulin decreases glucose in blood making us feel hungry.

Glucose Molecule

Slide16

Glucose & BrainLevels of glucose in the blood are monitored by receptors (neurons) in the stomach, liver, intestines, they send signals to the hypothalamus in the brain.

Rat Hypothalamus

Slide17

Hypothalamic Centers

Lateral hypothalamus (LH)

brings on hunger (stimulation). Destroy it and the animal has no interest in eating. Reduction of blood glucose stimulates

orexin

in LH which leads to ravenous eating in rats.

Slide18

Hypothalamic Centers

Ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH)

depresses

hunger

(

stimulation). Destroy it and the animal eats excessively.

Slide19

Hypothalamus & Hormones

Hypothalamus monitors a number of hormones that

are related to hunger.

Hormone

Tissue

Response

Orexin

increase

Hypothalamus

Increases hunger

Ghrelin increase

Stomach

Increases hunger

Insulin increase

Pancreas

Increases hunger

Leptin

increase

Fat cells

Decreases hunger

PPY increase

Digestive tract

Decreases hunger

Slide20

Set-Point TheoryManipulating lateral and ventromedial hypothalamus alters the body’s “weight thermostat.”

If weight is lost – food intake increases and energy expenditure decreases. If weight is gained – the opposite takes place.

Slide21

The Psychology of HungerMemory plays an important role in hunger.

Due

to difficulties with retention, amnesia patients eat frequently, if given food (

Rozin et al., 1998).

On the other hand, Alzheimer’s patients may forget to eat.

Slide22

Eating DisordersAnorexia Nervosa:

Characterized by a normal-weight person (usually adolescent women) losing weight continuously and yet feeling overweight.

Reprinted by permission of

The New England

Journal of Medicine,

207, (Oct 5, 1932), 613-617.Lisa O’Connor/ Zuma/ Corbis

Slide23

Eating DisordersBulimia Nervosa:

A disorder characterized by episodes of overeating, usually of high-calorie foods, followed by vomiting, laxative use, fasting, or excessive exercise.

Slide24

Obesity

http://www.cyberdiet.com

A disorder characterized by excessive overweight. Obesity increases risk and health issues like c

ardiovascular diseases, diabetes hypertension, arthritis, and back problems.

Slide25

Summary

Slide26

Motivation at Work

The healthy life, said Sigmund Freud, is filled by love and work.

-Motivation at work and school

Slide27

Attitudes Towards Work

Job:

Necessary way to make money.

Career:

Opportunity to advance from one position to another.Calling: fulfilling a socially useful activity.

People have different attitudes towards work. Some take it as a:

Slide28

Flow & Rewards

Flow is experience between no work and a lot of work. Flow marks immersion into one’s work.

People who “flow” in their work (artists, dancers, composers etc.) are driven less by

extrinsic rewards

(money, praise, promotion) and more by

intrinsic rewards.

Slide29

Work and SatisfactionIn industrialized countries work and satisfaction go hand-in-hand.

Slide30

Industrial-Organizational (I/O) PsychologyApplies psychological principles to workplace.

Personnel Psychology:

Principles of selecting and evaluating workers.

Organizational Psychology

:

Studies how work environments and management styles influence worker motivation, satisfaction, and productivity.

Slide31

Harnessing Strengths

Identifying people’s strengths (analytical, disciplined, eager to learn etc.) and matching them to work is the first step toward workplace effectiveness.

Slide32

Organizational Psychology: Motivating AchievementAchievement motivation is defined as desire for significant accomplishment.

Skinner devised a daily discipline schedule

which led him to become 20

th

century most

influential psychologist.Ken Heyman/ Woodfin Camp & Associates

Slide33

Satisfaction & Engagement

Harter et al., (2002) observed that

employee engagement

meant that the worker knows:

What is expected of him.

Feels the need to work.Feels fulfilled at work.Gets opportunities to do the best.Thinks himself to be a part of something significant.Has opportunities to learn and develop.

Engaged workers are more productive

than non-engaged at different stores

of the same chain.

Capital-Journal/ David Eulitt/ AP/ Wide World Photos

Slide34

AP InfoDrive-reduction theory (give an example)Which part of the hypothalamus does what?Know your hormones (where does the signal come from…before that…?)

Slide35

More AP info…Maslow-hierarchy of needs Drive-reduction theory of motivationInstinct theoryLH starts feeding, VMH stops feedingFeel good-do good phenomenonIntrinsic vs extrinsic motivation,

remember the

overjustification

effect?

Slide36

Introduction to Emotion

James Lange Theory

Cannon-Bard Theory

Schacter

-Singer Theory (2 factor)Autonomic Nervous System

Slide37

Theories of EmotionEmotions are our body’s adaptive response.

Emotions

are a mix of 1) physiological activation, 2) expressive behaviors, and 3) conscious experience.

Slide38

ControversyDoes physiological arousal precede or follow your emotional experience?

Does cognition (thinking)

precede

emotion (feeling)?

Slide39

James-Lange Theory

William James and Carl Lange proposed an idea that was diametrically opposed to the common-sense view. James-Lange theory proposes that physiological activity precedes the emotional experience

.

(We react to the changes in our body that we feel)

Slide40

Cannon-Bard Theory

Walter Cannon and Phillip Bard questioned James-Lange theory and proposed emotion-triggering stimulus and body's arousal take place simultaneously.

Slide41

Two-Factor Theory

Stanley

Schachter

and Jerome Singer proposed yet another theory which suggested that our physiology and our cognitions create emotions. Emotions have two factors–physical arousal and cognitive label

.

Slide42

Embodied EmotionWe know that emotions involve bodily response. Some of these response are easy to notice (butterflies in stomach when fear arises) but others are more difficult discern (neurons activated in the brain).

Slide43

Emotions and Autonomic Nervous SystemDuring an emotional experience our autonomic nervous system mobilizes energy in the body and arouses us.

43

Slide44

Arousal and Performance

(remember Yerkes-Dodson??)

Arousal in short spurts is adaptive. We perform better under moderate arousal, however optimal performance varies with task difficulty.

Slide45

Physiological Similarities

Physiological responses are pretty much similar across the emotions of fear, anger, love and boredom.

Excitement and fear involve similar

physiological arousal.

This can be an issue when you study stress, which in our lives has physical consequences to psychological triggers.

Your body only has one response to stress and it involves activating your sympathetic nervous system. This is not always healthy

Slide46

Cognition and EmotionWhat is the connection between how we

think

(cognition) and how we

feel (emotion)?Can we change our emotions by changing our thinking?

Slide47

Cognition Can Define Emotion

Arousal response to one event spills over into our response to the next event.

Arousal from a soccer match can fuel anger, which can descend into rioting.

AP Photo/ Nati Harnik

Reuters/ Corbis

Slide48

Two Routes to EmotionZajonc

and

LeDoux

(1984) emphasize some emotions are immediate without conscious appraisal. Lazarus, Schachter and Singer (1998) emphasize that appraisal also determines emotions.

Slide49

Nonverbal Communication

Most of us are good at deciphering emotions thorough non-verbal communication. In a crowd of faces a single angry face will “pop out” faster than a single happy face (Fox et al. 2000).

Slide50

Gender, Emotion, and Nonverbal Behavior

Women are much better at discerning nonverbal emotions then men. When shown sad, happy and scary film clips women expressed emotions more than men.

Slide51

Culture and Emotional Expression

When culturally diverse people were shown basic facial expressions, they did pretty well at recognizing them (Ekman & Matsumoto, 1989).

Elkman & Matsumoto, Japanese and

Caucasian Facial Expression of Emotion

Slide52

Emotions are AdaptiveDarwin speculated that our ancestors communicated with facial expression in the absence of language. Nonverbal facial expression led to their survival.

Charles Darwin (1809-1882)

Slide53

Analyzing Emotion

Analysis of emotions is carried out on different levels.

Slide54

Experienced Emotion

Fear

Anger

Adaptation-level phenomenon

Relative deprivation

Slide55

Experienced Emotion

Izard (1977) has isolated 10 emotions. And most of

them are present in infancy, excluding contempt,

shame and guilt.

Nancy Brown/ The Image Bank

Tom McCarthy/ Rainbow

Slide56

Dimensions of Emotion

People generally divide emotions into

two dimensions

Slide57

Fear

Fear can torment us, rob us of sleep and

preoccupy our thinking. But fear can be adaptive – it makes us run away from danger, brings us

closer as groups, protects us from

injury and harm.

Slide58

Learning Fear

We learn fear in two ways through

conditioning

and/or through

observation

.

Watson

Bandura

Slide59

The Biology of Fear

Some fears are easier to learn than others. The amygdala in the brain associates emotions like fear with certain

situations and its proximity to the hippocampus allows for the easy encoding of these memories.

Slide60

Causes of Anger

People generally get angry with friends and loved ones about misdeeds, especially if they are willful, unjustified, and avoidable.

People also get angry about foul odors, high temperatures, traffic jams, aches and pains.

Slide61

Catharsis HypothesisVenting anger through action or fantasy achieves emotional release or “catharsis.”

Some believe that we are drawn to displays of violence (football,

etc

) because it is cathartic and allows us an outlet for aggression.

Expressing

anger breeds more anger, and through reinforcement, is habit forming.

Slide62

Emotional Ups and Downs

Our positive moods rise to a maximum within 6-7 hours after waking up. Negative moods stay more or less the same over the day.

Slide63

Feel-Good, Do-Good phenomenon

When we feel happy we are more willing to help others. This is a good example of the “spill over effect”

Slide64

Happiness & Satisfaction

Subjective well-being (happiness + satisfaction) measured in 82 countries show Puerto Rico and Mexico (poorer countries) at the top of the list.

Slide65

Happiness & Prior Experience

Adaptation-Level Phenomenon:

Like sensory adaptation to brightness, volume, and touch, people adapt to

new situations until that situation becomes the “norm”. Then people need a new experience. This constantly raises the level for what is considered new and exciting

In baseball, the Cardinals are used to being a successful team, and we are used to rooting for a winner. What would happen if they started having really bad seasons?

Slide66

Slide67

Happiness & Others’ Attainments

Happiness is not relative to our past but also to our comparisons with others.

Relative Deprivation is the perception that one is worse off relative to those with whom one compares oneself with.They realize that they have less of what they believe themselves to be entitled than those around them

.Can lead to social movements, deviance, rioting, civil wars, etc

Slide68

AP Info…Know the theories of how we experience emotion. Which one involves a cognitive label?What role does conditioning play in our emotions? Schemas?Yerkes-Dodson-optimum level of arousal

Slide69

More AP info…James-Lange (arousal leads to emotion)Cannon-Bard (simultaneous experience)Schacter-Singer (2 factor, cognitive label)Sternberg triangle theory of love (passion-commitment-intimacy)