Based on Barrons AP Psych Test Prep Cerepak 2016 Why do people do what they do Motivation theories attempts to answer that question directly Motivations are feelings or ideas that cause us to act toward a goal ID: 614105
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Slide1
Motivation and Emotion
Based on Barron’s AP Psych Test Prep
Cerepak
2016Slide2
Why do people do what they do?
Motivation theories attempts to answer that question directly!
Motivations are feelings or ideas that cause us to act toward a goal
Some are obvious and conscious
Some are subtleSlide3
Theories of Motivation
After Darwin’s theory of natural selection was published, psychologists tried unsuccessfully to explain ALL human behavior as a series of instincts
Ethologists examine the role that evolution plays in human thought and behavior.
Psychologists agree that our behavior is motivated by biological and psychological factorsSlide4
Drive Reduction Theory
The theory that our behavior is motivated by biological needs (food, water)
Drive: our impulses to act in a certain way that satisfies a need.
Need: food
Drive: hunger
We want to
reduce
our
drive, so we eat!Slide5
Homeostasis
: A balanced internal state
When we are out of our homeostasis, we have a need that creates a drive.
Primary Drives
: Satisfy biological needs like thirst
Secondary Drives
: learned drives (learn that money can satisfy a primary need-food)
But how might this theory explain the need for speed?Slide6
Arousal Theory
Some motivations violate biological theories
Arousal Theory: explains behavior as the consequence of our desire to seek optimum excitement or arousal
We all have different needs for arousal levels and we are drawn to activities that help us achieve that level.Slide7
Yerkes- Dodson Law
In general, most of us perform best with an optimum level of arousal, although it can vary with activities.
High level of
arousal+easy
task= perform well
High level of arousal+difficult
task= poor performanceSlide8
Opponent-Process Theory of Motivation
Usually used to explain addictive behaviors
People are usually at a baseline state, then we perform an act to move us away from the
baseline
(smoking a cigarette).
Opponent-Process: we want to get back to baseline to feel normal again.
Withdrawal
: uncomfortable feeling of withdrawal again takes us away from baseline and we smoke to feel “normal” again”Slide9
Incentive Theory
Incentives are stimuli that we are drawn to due to learning
Associate stimuli with reward and punishment, therefore, we are motivated to seek the reward.
Who would agree with this?Slide10
Maslow RevisitedSlide11
Influences on Eating BehaviorSlide12
Hunger Motivation
Biological Basis of Hunger:
1) We report feeling hungry when our stomachs are empty and contracts
2) Hypothalamus
: monitors and helps control body chemistry (ratio of glucose and insulin).
-Lateral Hypothalamus: causes us to eat: effect of lesion?
-Ventromedial hypothalamus: stops us from eating. Effect of Lesion?
3)
Set-point theory
: controversial view of hunger that we have an optimum weight. When we drop below this weight, our hypothalamus tells us we should eat and lowers our metabolic rate (how quickly our body uses energy)
-some believe that weight maintenance has more to do with learning and cognition. Slide13
Psychological Factors in Hunger Motivation
Externals: Motivated to eat by external food cues, such as attractiveness and availability of food
Internals: respond to internal hunger cues
Culture and background affect our food preferences
Memory of eating last
Garcia Effect: classical conditioning with food.
-getting sick from a certain food and avoiding it in the future.Slide14
Sexual Motivation
Sexual motivations are vital for the continuation of any species
One of the primary tasks for most living organisms if reproduction.
Sex is motivated by biological and psychological factorsSlide15
Masters and Johnson
William Masters and Virginia Johnson were the first (and highly controversial) researchers of sex.
They used medical equipment to measure the body’s response to sexual arousal and even watched around 10,000 people have intercourse as part of their studies.Slide16
Sexual Response Cycle
Humans sexual response cycle progress through four stages as outlined by Masters and Johnson:
1) Initial excitement: Genital areas become engorged with blood, penis becomes erect, clitoris swells, respiration and heart rate increase.
2) Plateau Phase: Respiration and heart rate continue at an elevated level, genitals secrete fluids in preparation for intercourse.
3) Orgasm: Rhythmic, genital contractions that may help conception, respiration and heart rate further, males ejaculate often accompanied by a pleasurable euphoria
4) Resolution Phase: Respiration and heart rate return to normal resting states, men experience a refractory period-a time period that must elapse before another orgasm, women do not have a similar refractory period and can repeat the cycle immediately.Slide17
Psychological Factors in Sexual Motivation
Our sexual desire is not strictly motivated by hormones.
It is controlled by psychological factors to a great extent.
The interaction between our physiology and psychology creates the myriad of sexual desires we see in society and ourselves.Slide18
Sexual Orientation
Researchers like Alfred Kinsey documented the variety of sexual behaviors in the famous Kinsey Reports.
The reports dispelled common myths about what it means to be homosexual:
It is not related to a traumatic childhood experience, parenting styles, the quality of relationships with parents, masculinity or femininity, or whether we are raised by heterosexual or homosexual parents.Slide19
Sexual Orientation Cont’d
Some possible biological influences have been found:
Specific brain structures might vary in size in homosexuals when compared to the same structure in heterosexual people
Twin studies indicate that genetic influence on sexual orientation since an identical twin is much more likely to be homosexual if her
twin is
homosexual (but as well now know- twin studies might not
be perfect.)Slide20
Social Motivation
What
motivates
the more complicated behaviors, such as taking the AP Psych Exam?
Your attitudes
GoalsThe society you live in
The people you surround yourself with Slide21
Achievement Motivation
Examines our desire to master complex tasks and knowledge and to reach personal goals.
Humans are motivated to figure out the world regardless of whether the knowledge is actually useful
Achievement motivation varies from person to person and activity to activity
Achievement motivation is different than optimum arousal. Achievement motivation involves meeting personal goals and acquiring new knowledge or skills whereas optimum arousal indicates the general level of arousal a person is motivated to seek.Slide22
Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motivation
Extrinsic Motivation
Rewards that we get from outside ourselves
Grades
Salary
Intrinsic Motivation
Rewards we get internally
Enjoyment
SatisfactionSlide23
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation Cont’d
Applying Knowledge of Types of Motivation
Knowing what type of motivation an individual responds to can give managers and other leaders insight into what strategies will be most effective for motivating employees
Extrinsic Motivation is great for short term achievement and appraisal; however, the motivation and desired behavior will fade over time.
Intrinsic Motivation is needed to continue the desired behavior.Slide24
Management Theory
Applying Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motivation
Theory X
Managers believe that employees will work only if rewarded with benefits or threatened with punishment
Theory Y
Managers believe that employees are internally motivated to do good work and policies should encourage this internal motivation
Cross-Cultural studies show the benefits of moving from a Theory
X
attitude about employees to a Theory Y attitude. Some companies hire consultants to help managers promote intrinsic motivation.Slide25
When Motives Conflict
Ever find yourself conflicted about making decisions?
Psychologists discuss four types of motivational conflicts.
Approach-Approach
Conflict
: choosing between two desirable outcomes.
Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict
: choosing between two unattractive outcomes.
Approach-Avoidance Conflict
: one event has both + and – features
Multiple Approach-Avoidance Conflict
: two or more events have both + and – features
Can you come up with examples of each conflict?Slide26
Emotion
Our emotional state is closely related to our motivation.
Can you imagine wanting to do a behavior without an accompanying feeling about the action?
Motivation influences Emotions
Emotions influence Motivation
A few theories try to explain our emotional experiences…
How are you feeling today?Slide27
Someone cuts you off on the road. You may feel the emotion of anger. Emotions are a mix of:
2) Bodily
arousal:
sweat, pounding heart
Emotion: Arousal, Behavior, and Cognition
1) Expressive
behavior:
yelling, accelerating
3) Conscious
experience:
(thoughts, especially the labeling of the emotion)
What a bad driver! I am angry, even scared; better calm down.
How do these components of emotion interact and relate to each other?
Do our thoughts trigger our emotions, or are they a product of our emotions?
How are the bodily signs triggered?
How do we decide which emotion we
’
re feeling?
An
emotion
is a full body/mind/behavior response to a situation.Slide28
Some important reminders
T
his definition of emotion may not seem to say much.
However, it differentiates an emotion from a
mood
, which is NOT a response to a situation, and an
attitude
, which is a predisposition to act in a certain way in a situation.
It also differentiates an emotion from one’s affect, which are the outwardly expressive signs, especially facial expression and other nonverbal behaviors, that seem to be related to emotions.
Remember: “arousal” means a wide range of energetic bodily responses, and not just sexual arousal. (this arousal refers to activation of the sympathetic nervous system, including pounding heart, increased breathing, energy, sweating, etc.)Slide29
Theories of Emotion:
The Arousal and Cognition
“
Chicken and Egg
”
Debates
James-Lange Theory:
body
before
thoughts
Cannon-Bard Theory:
body
with
thoughts
Singer-
Schachter’s
Two-factor theory:
body
plus
thoughts/label
Zajonc, LeDoux, Lazarus:
body/brain
without
conscious thoughts
Which came first, the chicken or the egg? Or did they evolve together
?
Which came first?
1) the
body changes
that go with an emotion,
2) or
the
thoughts
(conscious awareness and
labeling
of an emotion
),
3) or
do they happen together
?
Quick Overview:Slide30
James-Lange Theory:
Body Before Thoughts
William James (1842-1910):
“
We feel afraid because we tremble, sorry because we cry.
”
The James-Lange theory states that emotion is our conscious awareness of our physiological responses to stimuli.
This theory is mentioned for historical
p
urposes; we now know that although
b
iological changes are involved in
e
motions, they are not the cause of
t
hem.Slide31
Human body responses run
parallel
to the cognitive responses rather than causing them.
Cannon-Bard Theory: Simultaneous Body Response and Cognitive Experience
They noted that we have the same physiological responses to different emotions
If Little Red Riding Hood’s heart races when she sees the Big Bad Wolf, how does she know if she is afraid, in love, embarrassed or merely joyful?
The Cannon-Bard theory asserts that we have a conscious/cognitive experience of an emotion
at the same
time as our body is responding, not afterward. Slide32
I face a stranger, and my heart is pounding. Is it fear? Excitement? Anger? Lust? Or did I have too much caffeine?
The label completes the emotion.
Schachter
-Singer’s Two-factor
Theory:
Emotion = Body Plus a Cognitive Label
The Schachter-Singer
“
two-factor
”
theory suggests that emotions do not exist until we add a label to whatever body sensations we are feeling.Slide33
Robert Zajonc, Joseph LeDoux,
and Richard Lazarus:
Emotions without Awareness/Cognition
Theory: some emotional reactions, especially fears, likes, and dislikes, develop in a
“
low road
”
through the brain, skipping conscious thought.
In one study, people showed an amygdala response to certain images (above, left) without being aware of the image or their reaction.Slide34
Summary: Theories of Emotion
Explanation of emotions ExampleSlide35
Summary: Theories of EmotionSlide36
Nonverbal Expressions of Emotion
Psychologists researching emotions find that no matter what culture you are from, you use and interpret facial expressions as representing the same emotions.
Sociobiolog
y: relates social behaviors to evolutionary psychologySlide37
Is
Experienced
Emotion as
Universal as
Expressed
Emotion?
Carroll Izzard suggested that there are ten basic emotions: those evident at birth (seen here) plus contempt, shame, and guilt.Slide38
Embodied Emotion:
The role of the autonomic nervous system
The
physiological arousal
felt during various emotions is orchestrated by the
sympathetic nervous system
, which triggers activity and changes in various organs.
Later, the parasympathetic division calms down the body.Slide39
Stress
Stress and emotions are intimately connected concepts
Studying stress not only helps us understand motivation and emotions but helps us solve problems caused by stress
The term
stress
can relate to life events (
stressors
) or our reactions to them (
stress reactions).Slide40
Measuring Stress
Psychologists Thomas Holmes and Richard
Rahe
designed one of the first instruments to measure stress called the Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS).
It measured stress using life-change units (LCUs).
A major life change increases the score on the SRRS (changing jobs, getting married, moving)
A high-scoring person is more likely to have stress-related diseases than a low-scorer
Other psychologists have taken into account
how people perceive these events as a more accurate measure of stress and these tests are even more highly correlated with stress-related disease.Slide41
Seyle’s
General Adaptation Syndrome
General Adaptation
Sydrome
(GAS) describes the general response animals (including humans) have to stressful events.
Our response pattern to many physical and emotional response is consistent and
Seyle
described it in stages seen on the next slide.Slide42
Sympathetic
Nervous System
Gets body ready
To fight
Remains ready for
Action, hormones
Released to
maint
-
t
ain
readiness.
Resources can be
Depleted here.
Parasympathetic
Nervous system
Restores balance
Stress-related diseases can include ulcers, heart conditions, and emotional difficulties.Slide43
Perceived Control Over Stressful Events
Various studies have shown that a perceived lack of control over events increases the harmful effects of the stress.
Rats given control over duration of painful shocks are less likely to get ulcers than the ones with no control, even if the number of shocks they received were the same
Some control lessons the effects
of the event overall.