Motivation and Emotion - PowerPoint Presentation

Motivation and Emotion Unit VIII- Modules 37-44

Motivation Motivations- a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior Motivations come from an interaction between nature and nurture There are four theories that try to explain motivation: Instinct theory Drive-reduction theory Arousal theory Hierarchy of needs *

Instincts and Evolutionary Psychology Influenced by Charles Darwin’s work, people started to classify many behaviors as instincts during the early 20 th century One sociologist actually identified 5759 supposed human instincts This idea of classifying behaviors as instincts faded out quickly People realized it was explaining a behavior by giving the person a label *

Instincts and Evolutionary Psychology a bright child’s low grades was “explained” by labeling the child as an underachiever To name a behavior is not to explain it Instinct- a complex, unlearned behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species Instincts are common in other species Humans do have some reflexes, like an infants’ innate reflex for rooting and sucking for feeding *

Instincts and Evolutionary Psychology Instinct theory failed to explain most human motives, but it did help support the assumption that genes predispose species-typical behavior *

Drives and incentives The instinct theory was replaced by the drive-reduction theory Drive-reduction theory- the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state(a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need Usually when a physiological need increases, a psychological drive increases as well *

Drives and incentives The physiological aim of drive reduction is homeostasis Homeostasis- a tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level Another example is the body’s temperature-regulation system If our body temperature cools, blood vessels constrict to conserve warmth, and we feel driven to put on more clothes or seek a warmer environment *

Drives and incentives Not only are we pushed by our need to reduce drives, we are also pulled by incentives A positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior Depending on your learning, the smell of freshly baked bread can motivate our behavior The sight of those we find attractive or threatening can motivate our behavior *

Drives and incentives When there is both a need and an incentive, we feel strongly driven The food deprived person who smells baking bread feels a strong hunger drive *

Optimum Arousal Optimal arousal theory holds that some motivated behaviors actually increase arousal Well fed animals will leave their shelter to explore and gain information, seemingly in the absence of any need based drive Curious monkeys will try to figure out how to unlock a latch that goes no where or to open a window that simply allows them to see outside *

Optimum Arousal Human motivation aims not to eliminate arousal but to seek optimum levels of arousal Having all our biological needs satisfied, we feel driven to experience stimulation and we hunger for information Lacking stimulation, we feel bored and look for a way to increase arousal to some optimum level *

Optimum Arousal With too much stimulation comes stress, and we look for a way to decrease arousal Yerkes-Dodson Law- the principle that performance increases with arousal only up to a point, beyond which performance decreases This law states that moderate arousal leads to optimal performance It pays to be somewhat aroused when trying to take an exam but not too much where you are stressed *

Optimum Arousal We have now learned that optimal arousal levels depend on the task as well, with more difficult tasks requiring lower arousal for best performance *

Hierarchy of Needs Some needs take priority over others With your needs for air and water satisfied, other motives are energizing and directing your behavior Let your need for water go unsatisfied and you thirst will preoccupy you Deprived of air, your thirst would disappear *

Hierarchy of Needs Abraham Maslow described these priorities as a hierarchy of needs Hierarchy of needs- Pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied before higher level safety needs and then psychological needs become active *

Hierarchy of Needs At the base of the pyramid are our physiological needs such as food and water Once these needs are met we are prompted to meet our need for safety Then comes our need to satisfy our needs to give and receive love and to enjoy self-esteem Lastly lies the need to actualize one’s full potential *

Hierarchy of Needs Maslow also propose that at the end of life some people reach a level of self-transcendence At the self-actualization level people seek to realize their own potential The self transcendence level is where people strive for meaning, purpose, and communion that is beyond the self, this is transpersonal *

Hierarchy of Needs The order of Maslow’s hierarchy is not fixed People have starved themselves to make a political statement In some societies, gaining and retaining mates and parenting offspring are part of the hierarchy It has been found that the simple idea that some motives are more compelling that others is worldwide *

Hierarchy of Needs In poorer nations that lack easy access to money and the food and shelter it buys, financial satisfaction more strongly predicts feelings of well being In wealthy nations, where most are able to meet basic needs, home life satisfaction is a better predictor Self esteem matter most in individualistic nations *

Assignment In a google document, titled Sources of Motivational Needs, create a chart that discusses the following: In one column you should have the following things listed: behavioral/external, social, biological, cognitive, affective, conative, and spiritual. In the other column provide three examples of specific types of motivation that are linked to that term. Example: Behavioral- We are motivated to get good grades to receive a reward for our work. You may need to look up some of the words to get an idea of what they mean when dealing with motivation

Hunger Motivation Keys’ study on pg. 396 What triggers hunger? Are the pangs of an empty stomach the source of hunger? Through studies, it was discovered that people do feel stomach contractions or pangs when they are hungry So can hunger exist without hunger pangs? *

Hunger Motivation To answer that question, researchers removed some rats’ stomachs and created a direct path to their small intestines Did the rats continue to eat? They did Some hunger persists similarly in humans whose stomachs have been removed as a treatment for ulcers or cancer The pangs of an empty stomach are not the only source of hunger *

Hunger Motivation Your body keeps tabs on the energy it takes in and the energy it uses If this weren’t true, you would be unable to maintain a stable body weight A major source of energy in your body is the blood sugar glucose Glucose- the form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source of energy for body tissues. When its level is low, we feel hungry *

Hunger Motivation If you blood glucose level drops, you wont consciously feel this change, but your stomach, intestines, and live will signal your brain to motivate eating Your brain, which monitors your blood chemistry and your body’s internal state, will trigger hunger *

Hunger Motivation Within the brain, mainly in the hypothalamus, there are certain areas that secrete appetite stimulating hormones and other areas that secrete appetite suppressing hormones Lateral hypothalamus- the part of the brain that controls the desire to eat When it is stimulated, a rat will eat without becoming full When destroyed, the a starved rat will not eat Ventromedial hypothalamus- the part of the brain that tells a person they are full or should stop eating When stimulated, a rat will starve to death When destroyed, a rat will continue to feel the urge to eat *

Hunger Motivation Appetite hormones Insulin- secreted by pancreas; controls blood glucose Ghrelin- secreted by empty stomach; sends “ Im hungry” signals to the brain Orexin - hunger triggering hormone secreted by hypothalamus Leptin- protein hormone secreted by fat cells; when abundant, causes brain to increase metabolism and decrease hunger PYY- digestive tract hormone; sends “ im not hungry” signals to the brain *

Hunger Motivation The interaction of appetite hormones and brain activity suggest that the body has some sort of weight thermostat When semistarved rats fall below their normal weight, this system signals the body to restore the lost weight The rats hunger increases and their energy output decreases If body weight rises hunger decreases and energy expenditure increases Humans tend to hover around a stable weight called a set point *

Hunger Motivation Humans vary in our basal metabolic rate The body’s resting rate of energy expenditure We share a common response to decreased food intake Our basal metabolic rate drops Even after 3 weeks of taking in half the normal calories, a person’s weight would stabilize at ¾ their normal weight *

Hunger Motivation Some researchers suggest that the idea of a biologically fixed set point is too rigid to explain some things It does not address how slow, sustained changes in body weight can alter a person’s set point It also does not address when we have unlimited access to a wide variety of tasty foods, we tend to overeat and gain weight Set points also do not explain why psychological factors influence hunger *

The psychology of hunger Body chemistry and environmental factors together influence not only the when of hunger but also the what- our taste preferences When feeling tense or depressed, we crave starchy foods Carbs such as pasta, chips, and sweets help boost levels of serotonin, which has calming effects *

The psychology of hunger Conditioning can also affect our taste preferences People given highly salted foods may develop a liking for excess salt People sickened by a food may develop an aversion to it Our culture teaches us that some foods are acceptable but others are not The eye of a camel, horse, dog, and rat meat are considered repulsive to North Americans while others enjoy eating these foods *

The psychology of hunger Humans tend to avoid unfamiliar foods Neophobia - dislike of things unfamiliar This protected our ancestors from eating potentially harmful substances Harmful substances are often very bitter *

The psychology of hunger Situations also control our eating This has been called the ecology of eating Most of us eat more when eating with others When offered a larger portion of food, most people take the larger size Offered a variety of food like in a dessert buffet, we eat more than we do when asked to choose a portion from one favorite dessert *

Eating Disorder Our bodies are naturally disposed to maintain a normal weight, including stored energy reserves for times when food becomes unavailable Sometimes psychological influences overwhelm biological wisdom This is evident in three eating disorders *

Eating Disorder Anorexia nervosa Typically begins as a weight loss diet Usually are adolescents and 3 our of 4 times are females Drop significantly below normal weight- typically 15 percent or more They still feel fat, fear gaining weight, and remain obsessed with losing weight About half display a binge-purge-depression cycle *

Eating Disorder Bulimia nervosa May be triggered by a weight loss diet that is broken by gorging on forbidden foods Mostly women in their late teens or early twenties Often eat in spurts, sometimes influenced by friends who are bingeing In a cycle of repeating episodes, overeating is followed by compensatory purging or fasting or excessive exercise Preoccupied with food and fearful of becoming overweight, binge purge eaters experience bouts of depression and anxiety, most severe during and following binges Marked by weight fluctuations within or above normal ranves , making the condition easy to hide *

Eating Disorder Binge-eating disorder Those who do significant binge eating, followed by remorse, but do not purge, fast, or exercise excessively *

Eating Disorder A national study reports that at some point during their lifetimes, 0.6 percent of people meet the criteria for anorexia, 1 percent for bulimia, and 2.8 percent for binge-eating disorder *

Eating Disorder Possible reasons for eating disorders: Mothers of girls with eating disorders tend to focus on their own weight and on their daughters’ weight and appearance Families of bulimia patients have a higher than usual incidence of childhood obesity and negative self evaluation Families of anorexia patients tend to be competitive, high achieving, and protective *

Eating Disorder Anorexia sufferers often have low self-evaluations, set perfectionist standards, and are intensely concerned with how others perceive them Twins are somewhat more likely to share the disorder Culture preferences also play a role What are the measurements of a barbie doll if she was 5’7” 32-16-29 *

Eating Disorder Obesity can also be considered an eating disorder Obesity has been associated with lower psychological well being, especially among women, and increased risk of depression Obese 6 to 9 year olds are 60 percent more likely to suffer bullying Even with all the dangers, few overweight people when the battle with obesity Reasons for obesity- pg. 402 *

Emotion Motivated behavior is often driven by powerful emotions Emotions- a response of the whole organism, involving physiological arousal, expressive behaviors, and conscious experience Psychologists debate how these three emotions pieces fit together *

Emotion The emotion argument is like the chicken and the egg debate Does your bodily arousal come before, after, or at the same time as your emotional feelings? It also leads to the debate of how thinking and feeling interact Does cognition always come before emotion? *

James-Lange Theory Common sense tells most of us that we cry because we are sad, lash out because we are angry, tremble because we are afraid First come conscious awareness, then the feeling But to William James, this commonsense view of emotion had things backwards He believed we feel sorry because we cry, angry because we strike, afraid because we tremble *

James-Lange Theory James’ idea was proposed by Carl Lange and called it the James-Lange Theory Our experience of emotion is our awareness of our physiological responses to emotion arousing stimuli They guessed that you notice your racing heart and then, shaking with fright, you feel the whoosh of emotion Your feeling of fear follows your body’s response *

Cannon-Bard Theory Walter Cannon disagreed with James and Lange He believed the body’s responses are too similar, and they change too slowly, to cause the different emotions Racing heart could be fear, anger, or love Cannon with Philip Bard developed the Cannon-Bard Theory *

Cannon-Bard Theory Cannon-Bard Theory- states that an emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers physiological responses and the subjective experience of emotion My heart began pounding as I experience fear The emotion triggering stimulus traveled to my sympathetic nervous system, causing my body’s arousal At the same time, it traveled to my brain’s cortex, causing my awareness of my emotion My pounding heart did not cause my feeling of fear, nor did my feeling of fear cause my pounding heart *

Cannon-Bard Theory This theory has been challenged by studies of people with severed spinal cords Those with lower spine injuries, who had last sensation only in their legs, reported little change in their emotions’ intensity Those with high spinal cord injury, who could feel nothing below the neck, did report changes Some reactions were much less intense than before the injuries *

Cannon-Bard Theory The studies also showed that other emotions, those expressed mostly in body areas above the neck, were felt more intensely The studies seemed to show that our bodily responses feed our experienced emotions Most researchers do agree that our emotions involve cognition *

Two-factor theory Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer believed that an emotional experience requires a conscious interpretation of arousal Our physical reactions and our thoughts together create emotion Two-factor theory- to experience emotion one must by physically aroused and cognitively label the arousal *

Two-factor theory If you receive news you got a longed for job immediately after finishing a run, would you feel more elated than if you received this news after awakening from a nap? Schachter and Singer wanted to study this spillover effect They discovered that a stirred up state can be experienced as one emotion or another, depending on how we interpret and label it *

Other theories Robert Zajonc contended that we actually have many emotional reactions apart from, or even before, out interpretation of a situation For example, sometimes you may find yourself liking someone or something immediately, without even knowing why you like them or it *

Other theories Joseph Ledoux believed that our emotions take a low road, that takes a neural shortcut that bypasses the cortex A fear-provoking stimulus would travel from the eye or ear directly to the amygdala This shortcut enables our greased-lightning emotional response before our intellect intervenes Almost like reflexes *

Other theories Lazarus believed that our brain processes cast amounts of information without our conscious awareness, and that some emotional responses do not require conscious thinking Much of our emotional life operates via the automatic, speedy road He believed the appraisal of the situation may be effortless and we may not be conscious of it, but it is still a mental function In order to know if a stimulus is good or bad, the brain must have some idea of what it is He believed emotions arise when we appraise an event as harmless or dangerous, whether we truly know it is or not *

Other theories Zajonc and LeDoux showed that some emotional responses involve no conscious thinking We may fear a big spider, even if we know it is harmless These reactions are difficult to change just by changing our thinking Lazarus showed that our memories, expectations, and interpretations impact our emotions we feel *

Embodied Emotion Emotions involve the body Feeling without a body is like breathing without lungs The sympathetic nervous system prepares you to act in a stressful situation The parasympathetic nervous system helps calm you down Polygraph- a machine, commonly used in attempts to detect lies, that measures several of the physiological responses such as perspiration and cardiovascular and breathing changes that accompany emotion

Embodied Emotions - psychologists often will place emotions along two dimensions - pleasant versus unpleasant(emotion's valence) - low versus high arousal

Embodied Emotions our body prepares us to run or to stay when faced with a possible dangerous situation - Fight or flight to provide energy: - your liver secretes more sugar into the blood - respiration increases to supply needed oxygen - digestion slows in order to send blood to the muscles - pupils dilate allowing in more light - you start to sweat to cool the body - blood clots more quickly your autonomic nervous system controls these responses - sympathetic and parasympathetic

Embodied Emotions Polygraph- a machine, commonly used in attempts to detect lies, that measures several of the physiological responses accompanying emotion

Nonverbal Communication we communicate nonverbally as well as verbally What are some examples of how we communicate nonverbally? most of us are good at detecting nonverbal threats - when hearing emotions conveyed in another language, anger is the most readily detectable emotion - a single angry face will pop out more from a crowd than a single smiling one - we often read anger from the eyes and happiness from the mouth according to Robert Kestenbaum

Nonverbal Communication Judith Hall conducted studies that led to her to conclude that women generally surpass men at reading people's emotional cues - because of this women are better at spotting lies - women can also determine whether a male-female couple are a genuine romantic couple or a posed phony couple a woman's skill at decoding others' emotions may explain their higher emotional literacy women usually describe themselves as being more empathetic

Nonverbal Communication facial muscles make it hard to hide emotions that you may be trying to conceal slightly raising your eyebrows may show distress raised cheeks may show happiness the lack of expressive emotions is what makes it easy to misread emails and other forms of communication

Nonverbal Communication the meaning of gestures varies with cultures - the Chinese often clap their hands to express worry or disappointment or stick out their tongues to express surprise - the thumbs up is an insult in some countries some facial expressions are the same world wide - a smile is a smile everywhere - a frown means the same everywhere

Nonverbal Communication children's facial expressions are universal - this is even for blind children who have never seen a face Charles Darwin believed that facial expressions were a way to communicate before their was a spoken language a study done by James Laird showed that asking people to force themselves to frown has led to them having feelings of anger - it worked for other emotions as well

Experienced Emotion Fear - most fears are learned - What fear are we born with? - Why do we learn to fear things? Anger - Catharsis- emotional release - by releasing aggressive energy aggressive urges are relieved - anger does not go away, it must be released

Experienced Emotion - Happiness - Feel-good, do-good phenomenon- people's tendency to be helpful when already in a good mood - Subjective well being- self-perceived happiness or satisfaction with life - used to evaluate one's quality of life - adaptation-level phenomenon- our tendency to form judgements relative to a neutral level defined by our prior experience

Experienced Emotion Happiness - relative deprivation- the perception that one is worse off relative to those with whom one compares oneself

Stress and Health Psychological states cause physical reactions - stomach butterflies when nervous - headache when upset with someone prolonged stress can lead to heart disease, cancer, stroke, and chronic lung disease behavioral medicine- a field that integrates behavioral and medical knowledge and applies that knowledge to health and disease health psychology- a subfield of psychology that provides psychology's contribution to behavioral medicine - they look at how our emotions and personality influence our health - what behaviors can better our health

Stress and Health 4 in 10 people report experiencing stress frequently stress is hard to understand because it often means something different for each of us Stress- the process by which we perceive and respond to certain events, called stressors, that we appraise as threatening or challenging stress comes less from the actual events but how we interpret or handle those events - each of us interprets each situation differently when seen as challenges, stressors can possibly motivate us to conquer the problems

Stress and Health stressors can harm us though when they threaten our resources - this type of prolonged stress can harm us

The Stress Response Cycle Walter Cannon discovered that the stress response is part of a unified mind-body system Cannon discovered that emotion-arousing incidents triggered a release of epinephrine(adrenaline) or norepinephrine(noradrenaline) - these hormones enter the bloodstream from the adrenal glands - controlled by the sympathetic nervous system - Cannon referred to this process as fight or flight

The Stress Response Cycle psychologists have also identified another stress response system that is controlled by the cerebral cortex through the hypothalamus and pituitary glands - the adrenal gland secretes the stress hormone cortisol there are alternatives to fight-or-flight the response cycle to death - withdraw, pull back, and conserve energy

The Stress Response Cycle Hans Selye discovered that the body's adaptive response to stress was so general-like a single burglar alarm that sounds no matter what intrudes - general adaptation syndrome- Selye's concept of the body's adaptive response to stress in three stages - alarm- prepares you to fight the challenge - resistance- sudden outpouring of hormones that if persistent will drain your body's resources - exhaustion- vulnerable to illness or even death

Stressful life events Catastrophes- unpredictable, large-scale events such as war and natural disasters that nearly everyone appraises as threatening - people often provide aid to each other after these events but they still leave long lasting effects - 2/3 of Americans surveyed after 9/11 said that they were having trouble sleeping and concentrating three weeks after the event - sleeping pills in New York rose by 28 percent - other studies show that depression and anxiety rose by 17 percent after catastrophes

Stressful life events Significant life changes- leaving home, the death of a loved one, the loss of a job, a marriage, or divorce - half of adults under age of 50 report frequent stress while only 30 percent over 50 report having the stress - studies show that people that are recently widowed, fired, or divorced are more vulnerable to disease - the risk of death doubles in the week following their partner's death

Stressful life events Daily hassles- everyday annoyances like rush-hour traffic, aggravating housemates, long lines, too many things to do, and misplacing things - some people handle these situations better than others - over time these stressors can add up leading to hypertension- high blood pressure

Stress and the Heart Coronary heart disease- the clogging of the vessels that nourish the heart muscle - leading cause of death in many developed countries - behavioral and physiological behaviors can raise the risk of heart disease

Stress and the heart Friedman and Rosenman tried to study how stress can increase the risk of heart disease on top of the effects of cholesterol and other biological factors Through their studies they developed two different ideas about people - Type A- competitive, hard-driving, impatient, verbally aggressive, and anger-prone people - Type B- easygoing, relaxed people people classified as Type A have been seen to have a higher rate for heart disease and heart attacks

Stress and the Heart there are other factors than just being Type A that may lead these people to having a higher risk for heart disease - Type A people smoke more, sleep less and drink more caffeinated drinks - their temperament may contribute directly to heart disease Type A people are more combat ready than Type B - anger and pessimism are considered toxic emotions that often attack the heart muscles

Stress and disease Psychophysiological illnesses- literally, "mind-body" illess ; any stress-related physical illness, such as hypertension and some headaches - a person under stress may retain excess sodium and fluids which can contribute to increased blood pressure

Stress and disease the nervous system and endocrine system have an effect on the immune system the immune system exchanges information with the brain and the hormone-secreting endocrine system - the brain regulates the secretion of stress hormones, which in turn suppress the disease-fighting lymphocytes - lymphocytes- the two types of white blood cells that are part of the body's immune system - B and T lymphocytes

Other Important things to know Tend-and-befriend Under stress people(especially women) often provide support to others(tend) and bond with and seek support from others(befriend) Psycho-physiological illnesses Mind-body illnesses; any stress related physical illness such as hypertension and some headaches Psychoneuroimmunology The study of how psychological, neural, and endocrine processes together affect the immune system and resulting health